Governor of Tlaxcala MEXICO AUTOGRAPH LETTER ING MANUEL SANTILLAN SIGNED 1941

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176284773382 Governor of Tlaxcala MEXICO AUTOGRAPH LETTER ING MANUEL SANTILLAN SIGNED 1941. ING. MANUEL SANTILLAN AUTOGRAPH LETTER SIGNED FROM OCTOBER 16 1941 WITH ORIGINAL ENVELOPE . . . Manuel Santillán Osorno (September 29, 1894[1] – October 12, 1982[citation needed]) was a Mexican geological engineer and politician. Manuel Santillán, the youngest of three sons (Adalberto, the oldest, and Isuaro, in the middle), was born on September 29, 1894, in the Hacienda de Xalostoc (Tlaxco, Tlaxcala), to Calixto Santillan and Manuela Osorno. Santillán finished preparatory studies at Universidad Veracruzana in Jalapa, Veracruz and later received three engineering degrees. The first in geology and geodesic engineering; the second degree in Mining and Metallurgical Engineering; and the third in civil engineering from the School of Engineering at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). He was Governor of Tlaxcala, from January 15, 1941, to October 4, 1944, and was forced to resign as governor because he tried to oppose the national Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRM Party of the Mexican Revolution) leadership. During his tenure only Tlaxcala was the only state in Mexico that improved socioeconomic development and reach an income level proportionate to its population (Ai Cap 206).[8] He reassumed the direction National Geological Institute from February 1 to May 31 of 1945 (Gómez-Caballero 167).[9] He was president of the Sociedad Geológica en México from 1946 to 1947.

Manuel Santillán Osorno (September 29, 1894[1] – October 12, 1982[citation needed]) was a Mexican geological engineer and politician. Manuel Santillán, the youngest of three sons (Adalberto, the oldest, and Isuaro, in the middle), was born on September 29, 1894, in the Hacienda de Xalostoc (Tlaxco, Tlaxcala), to Calixto Santillan and Manuela Osorno. Santillán finished preparatory studies at Universidad Veracruzana in Jalapa, Veracruz and later received three engineering degrees. The first in geology and geodesic engineering; the second degree in Mining and Metallurgical Engineering; and the third in civil engineering from the School of Engineering at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Contents 1 Early career 2 State oil expropriation 2.1 Background 2.2 Mexican oil expropriation 3 Governor of Tlaxcala 4 Manuel Santillán's Publications 5 See also 6 References Early career He began his career as a mining engineer in Pachuca, Hidalgo in 1919. With Tomas Barrera, Santillán conducted explorations in northern Baja California in 1928. They published their results with a geological map in 1930. Many of the fossils obtained by Santillan and Barrera near Arroyo Santa Catarina were left at the University of California (Loc. 647 U. C. Coll.).[2] He was named Chief of Geologists for Mining and Petroleum in the Mexican Department of Industry and Commerce in 1929. In April 1929, Leopoldo Salazar Salinas, Director of the Geological Institute of Mexico, commissioned Santillán to study the mineral deposits of Pachuca and their relation to Miocene rocks. He published the report in 1931. From 1931, Santillán and Enrique M. González were the editors the journal Anuario, published by the Instituto de Geología, Geofísica y Geodesia (UNAM). He was the Director of the Geological National Institute (Instituto de Geología, Geofísica y Geodesia) from January 21, 1932, to January 21, 1941. One of his first actions as director was to request the transfer of the duplicates of fossils and minerals, which were guarded by the Secretary Agriculture and Development, to the Geological National Institute (UNAM). In this way began to consolidate Collection of Paleontology at the Institute (Carreño and Montellano-Ballesteros 140).[3] Santillán served as consulting Engineer to the Presidency, 1933. In 1934, he became Chief Geologist of the Department of National Economy. On November 9, 1936, Santillan opened the inaugural session of 146th Meeting of The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers in Mexico City, November 9–15.[4] Manuel Santillán was named the Vice President of the Sociedad Geológica en México from 1936 to 1941.[5] Under the administration of the president of Mexico, Lázaro Cárdenas, Manuel Santillán held four cabinet-level positions: Subsecretary of the Department of National Economy, 1935–36; Member of the technical Commission of the Presidency, 1935; Director of the National Petroleum Administration, 1937–1938 (a government organization formed to handle government-owned petroleum properties); and Subsecretary of Public Works, 1938-40. Manuel Santillán was one of the founding members of the Comisión Federal de Electricidad in 1937. State oil expropriation Background In December 1933 a Congressional decree established Petróleos de México S.A. (Petromex)--a publicly traded company in which just Mexican nationals could purchase equity—with the purpose of supplying the fuel requirements of the National Railways in particular and the domestic market with petroleum products in general. It was also given the responsibility of regulating the domestic petroleum markets and training Mexican personnel in all aspects of the industry. Petromex lasted only until September 1934, when it was dissolved owing to a lack of interest on the part of the investing public, and the assets and shares of the company were transferred to the Control de Administración del Petróleo Nacional. In November 1936 a law was passed that expropriated for the state all assets considered to be of public utility, including oil and natural gas, and in January 1937 the state-owned Administración General del Petróleo Nacional was created to explore and develop the national reserves that were assigned to it. Manuel Santillán was the Director of the National Petroleum Administration from January 1937 to May 6, 1938.[6] By 1936, Germany displaced Great Britain, and became the second-largest trading partner of Mexico after the United States. The oil production was a source of great potential importance. The United States was not alien to this process, nor was the Great Britain. Throughout this period the movements of Germany, as well as those of Italy and Japan would be carefully followed by the intelligence services of both nations. In August 1937, the Foreign Office was notified that German and Italian agents were having an active participation in Mexico, even suggesting that the conflict in the oil industry was being funded with money from these nations. A letter written by Baron Von Collenberg, Minister Plenipotentiary of Germany to Mexico, was intercepted by the British Consulate. The letter was addressed to Manuel Santillán, General Director General of the National Petroleum Administration, with intentions of establishing a commercial agreement between Mexico and Germany. The Germans were interested in buying 100,000 barrels of oil type Panuco. (Paz 91, Schuler 72) [7] Mexican oil expropriation In 1938, president Lázaro Cárdenas sided with oil workers striking against foreign-owned oil companies for an increase in pay and social services. On March 18, 1938 citing the 27th article of the 1917 constitution, President Lázaro Cárdenas embarked on the state-expropriation of all resources and facilities, nationalizing the United States and Anglo –Dutch operating companies, creating PEMEX. In retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil. In spite of the boycott, PEMEX developed into one of the largest oil companies in the world and helped Mexico become the fifth-largest oil exporter in the world. Governor of Tlaxcala He was Governor of Tlaxcala, from January 15, 1941, to October 4, 1944, and was forced to resign as governor because he tried to oppose the national Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRM Party of the Mexican Revolution) leadership. During his tenure only Tlaxcala was the only state in Mexico that improved socioeconomic development and reach an income level proportionate to its population (Ai Cap 206).[8] He reassumed the direction National Geological Institute from February 1 to May 31 of 1945 (Gómez-Caballero 167).[9] He was president of the Sociedad Geológica en México from 1946 to 1947.[10] He died in Mexico City, October 12, 1982. Manuel Santillán's Publications El Cerro de Mercado, Durango: por una comisión del Instituto geológico de México, formada por los señores: Ingeniero de minas Leopoldo Salazar Salinas ... Pedro Gonzalez ... Manuel Santillán ... [y] Antonio Acevedo; petrógrafo, A.R. Martínez Quintero. México, Talleres graficos "La Helvetia": 1923. "Informe preliminar de varias zonas mineralizadas de la parte central del Estado de Guerrero." México, Departamento de exploraciones y estudios geológicos, Folleto de divulgación 15 (Oct. 1925). " Informe preliminar de varias zonas mineralizadas de la parte norte y noroeste del Estado de Guerrero." México, Departamento de exploraciones y estudios geológicos, Folleto de divulgación 18 (May 1926). " Estudio preliminar de las zonas mineralizadas que se encuentran a uno y otro lado de la carretera en proyecto entre Durango, Durango, y Mazatlán, Sinaloa." México, Departamento de exploraciones y estudios geológicos, Folleto de divulgacion 24 (Feb. 1927). "Geología minera de la región comprendida entre Durango, Dgo., y Mazatlán, Sin., a uno y otro lado de la carretera en proyecto entre esas ciudades." Boletín del Instituto Geologico de México (1929): 1-46. "Geologia minera de las regiones norte, noroeste y central del Estado de Guerrero." Boletín del Instituto Geológico de México (1929): 47-102. Geología de la región comprendida entre Durango. México: Talleres gráficos de la nación, 1929. "Arcillas y arepas en Cerro Blanco, Tlaxcala, y sus alrededores." Anales del Instituto Geológico de México (1930): 83-95. and Barrera, Tomas. Las posibilidades petrolíferas en la costa occidental de la Baja California, entre los paralelos 30 y 32 de latitud norte." Anales del Instituto Geólogico de México (1930): 1-37. "El criadero de yeso de Apipilulco, Estado de Guerrero." Anales del Instituto Geologico de México 28 (1930): 147-151. "Estudio geologico sobre el mineral de Pachuca." Boletín Minero [México] 2 (Feb. 1931): 29-41. "Informe geologico relativo al mineral de Huitzuco, Guerrero." Boletín Minero [México], 6 (Jul. 1931) : 1-8. Carta geológico-minera del Estado de Durango por Manuel Santillán. Mexico: UNAM, Instituto de Geología, 1932. and González, Enrique M. Anuario del Instituto de Geología 1932. México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de Geología, Geofísica y Geodesia : Editorial "Cvltvra", 1933- "Cooper Resources of the World." Sixteenth International Geological Congress, Washington D. C. (1933): 386-387. Carta geológico-minera del Estado de Durango. [Map] México: Talleres gráficos de la Nación : Nacional de México, Instituto de Geología, 1936. "El cobre en Mexico." Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress (1935): 379-406. "Berilo y berilio en México." Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress Washington D. C. 2.62 (1936): 1091-1097. "Algunas investigaciones sobre platino en México" Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress Washington D. C. 2.62 (1936): 1110-1111. Carta geológico-minera del estado de Durango. Instituto de geológico. Cartas geológicas y geológico-mineras de la República mexicana. No. 2. México, Talleres Gráficos de la nación, 1936. "Developpement et importance de la geologie appliquee au Mexique." Congres International, des Mines, de la. Metallurgie, et de la Geologie Appliquee - Paris, 20-26 octobre 1935. 2 (1936): 1035-1043. "Synopsis of the geology of Mexico." Oil Weekly 81.2 (Mar. 1936): 35-37. "Synopsis of the Geology of Mexico." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 20.4 (Apr. 1936): 394-402. Instituto Geológico de México. Carta geológica de la República Mexicana / Instituto Geológico de Mexico, Director Ing. Manuel Santillán. Mexico : Instituto geológico de México, 1937. El Instituto Geológico como dependencia de la Universidad Nacional de México. México: Universidad Nacional de México, Instituto de Geología, 1940. Informe del C. Ing. Manuel Santillán, gobernador constitucional del estado, rendido ante el H. Congreso Local el día 1o. de abril de 1944 con motivo del tercer año de su administración gubernamental. Tlaxcala, Tlax.: Talleres Gráficas del Estado, 1944. Estudio para el aprovechamiento industrial de los bosques en la Cuenca del Tepalcatepec y estado que guardan las comunidades indigenas de Michoacán. Uruapan, México: Comisión del Tepalcatepec, 1951. Antecedentes y bases para la organización de la empresa que se encargará de instalar la fábrica para la producción de celulosa y papel en las inmediaciones de Ziracuaretiro, Mich. México: Ed. e Impr. Beatriz de Silva, 1953. Manuel Santillán Osorno ( Tlaxco , Tlaxcala , 29 of September of 1894 in January - Mexico City , December of October of 1982 [ citation needed ] ) was a Mexican political geologist and engineer. Manuel Santillán was the youngest of three brothers. He was born in the Hacienda de Xalostoc ( Tlaxco (Tlaxcala) ), his parents were Calixto Santillán and Manuela Osorno. He married Luz Gamper, and they had three children. Manuel Santillán finished his high school studies at the Universidad Veracruzana in Jalapa , and later received three degrees in engineering: the first in geological and geodetic engineering; the second in metallurgical and mining engineering; and the third in civil engineering from the School of Engineering of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Index 1 The beginnings of your professional career 2 The oil expropriation 2.1 Background 2.2 Nationalization of oil in Mexico 3 Governor of Tlaxcala 4 Publications 5 References 6 See also The beginnings of his professional career  He began his career as a mining engineer in Pachuca, Hidalgo in 1919. With Tomás Barrera, Santillán carried out explorations in northern Baja California in 1928. They published their results with a geological map in 1930. Many of the fossils obtained by Santillán and Barrera nearby de Arroyo de Santa Catarina were deposited at the University of California (Loc. 647 UC Coll.). 2 He was appointed chief of mining and petroleum geologists in the Ministry of Industry and Commerce in 1929. In April 1929, Leopoldo Salazar Salinas, director of the Geological Institute of Mexico, commissioned Manuel Santillán to study the mineral deposits of Pachuca and its relationship with Miocene rocks. He published the report in 1931. Since 1931, Santillán and Enrique M. González were the editors of the Anuario magazine , published by the Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Geodesy (UNAM). He was the Director of the National Geological Institute (Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Geodesy) from January 21, 1932 to January 21, 1941. One of his first actions as director was to request the transfer of duplicates of fossils and minerals, that were guarded by the Secretary of Agriculture and Development, the National Geological Institute (UNAM). In this way, the Paleontology Collection began to be consolidated at the Institute (Carreño and Montellano-Ballesteros 140). 3 Ing. Santillán served as a consulting engineer for the Presidency, 1933. In 1934, he became Chief Geologist of the Department of National Economy. On November 9, 1936, Ing. Santillán opened the inaugural session of the 146th Meeting of The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers in Mexico City, held from November 9 to 15 of the same year. 4 Manuel Santillan was named vice president of the Geological Society in Mexico from 1936 to 1941. 5 Under the administration of Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas, Manuel Santillán held four positions in his cabinet: Undersecretary of the National Economy Secretariat, 1935-36, member of the Technical Commission of the Presidency, 1935; Director of the National Petroleum Administration, 1937-1938 (a governmental organization created to manage the government's ownership of petroleum properties), and Undersecretary of Public Works, 1938-40. Manuel Santillán was one of the founding members of the Federal Electricity Commission in 1937. The oil expropriation  Background  On December 28, 1933, President Abelardo L. Rodríguez decreed the creation of Petróleos de México, SA (Petromex) , a company that would be directly owned by the Mexican Government of 50% and that the other 50% would be obtained from the participation of Mexican shareholders. Petromex, SA was incorporated on September 12, 1934 with the contribution of the Mexican Government of the assets and rights that the National Petroleum Administration Control body had. The contribution of fresh capital by individuals was not attractive to Mexican investors, so many shares were acquired directly by Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México and Nacional Financiera, SA, with individuals participating with only 6% of total shares. The objective of the company would be to supply fuel to the National Railways and petroleum products to the domestic market. Likewise, it would regulate the domestic oil market of Mexico and the training of personnel in all sectors of the industry. In November 1936, a law was passed that expropriated for the State all property that is considered to be of public utility, including oil and natural gas. Petromex lasted a very short time, since President Lázaro Cárdenas decreed on January 30, 1937 the creation of the General Administration of National Petroleum that would be constituted with the assets and rights of Petromex, SA and would be to explore and develop the national reserves that were assigned to him. Manuel Santillán was the Director of the National Administration of National Petroleum from its creation in 1937 to May 6 , 1938. 6In 1936, Germany displaced Great Britain, becoming Mexico's second largest trading partner after the United States. Oil production was a very important source of income. The United States was no stranger to this process, neither was England. Throughout this period the movements of German agents in Mexico, as well as those of Italy and Japan, were carefully followed by the intelligence services of the United States and England. In August 1937, the Foreign Office of England was notified that German and Italian agents were active in Mexico, and it was even speculated that the conflict in the oil industry was being financed with money from these. nations. A letter written by Baron Von Collenberg, Minister Plenipotentiary of Germany to Mexico, was intercepted by the British Consulate. The letter was addressed to Manuel Santillán, Director General of the National Petroleum Administration, with the intention of establishing a commercial agreement between Mexico and Germany. The Germans were interested in buying 100,000 barrels of Pánuco-type oil (Paz 91, Schuler 72). 7 Nationalization of oil in Mexico  In 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas del Ríohe supported oil workers in the strike against foreign oil companies. The workers demanded wage increases and improvements in social services. The Petroleum Expropriation or Nationalization of Petroleum was the result of the implementation of the Expropriation Law of 1937 and Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution applied to oil companies on March 18, 1938, by the President of the Republic, Gral. Lázaro Cárdenas from the river. Affecting North American, English and Dutch companies, they operated in the country. In retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil.PEMEX . Despite the boycott, PEMEX became one of the world's largest oil companies and has helped make Mexico the world's fifth-largest oil exporter. Governor of Tlaxcala  He was Governor of Tlaxcala, from January 15, 1941 to October 4, 1944. He was forced to resign as governor because he tried to oppose the leadership of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRM Partido de la Revolución Mexicana). During his tenure, Tlaxcala was the only state in Mexico that managed to improve its socioeconomic development and achieve an income level proportional to its population (Ai Cap 206). 8 Manuel Santillán returns to the direction of the National Geological Institute from February 1 to May 31, 1945 (Gómez-Caballero 167). 9 He was president of the Geological Society in Mexico from 1946 to 1947. 10 He died in Mexico City at approximately 6:36 p.m. on October 12, 1982. Publications  El Cerro de Mercado, Durango: by a commission of the Geological Institute of Mexico, made up of the following: Mining Engineer Leopoldo Salazar Salinas ... Pedro González ... Manuel Santillán ... [and] Antonio Acevedo; petrógrafo, AR Martínez Quintero . Mexico, "La Helvetia" graphic workshops: 1923. "Preliminary report of several mineralized zones of the central part of the State of Guerrero." Mexico, Department of Explorations and Geological Studies, Disclosure Booklet 15 (Oct. 1925). "Preliminary report of several mineralized zones of the north and northwest part of the State of Guerrero." Mexico, Department of Geological Explorations and Studies, Disclosure Booklet 18 (May 1926). "Preliminary study of the mineralized zones that are found on both sides of the highway in project between Durango, Durango, and Mazatlán, Sinaloa." Mexico, Department of Explorations and Geological Studies, Disclosure Booklet 24 (Feb. 1927). "Mining geology of the region between Durango, Dgo., And Mazatlán, Sin., On either side of the highway in project between those cities." Bulletin of the Geological Institute of Mexico (1929): 1-46. "Mining geology of the north, northwest and central regions of the State of Guerrero." Bulletin of the Geological Institute of Mexico (1929): 47-102. Geology of the region between Durango . Mexico: Graphic Workshops of the Nation, 1929. "Clays and arepas in Cerro Blanco, Tlaxcala, and its surroundings." Annals of the Geological Institute of Mexico (1930): 83-95. The oil possibilities on the western coast of Baja California, between parallels 30 and 32 north latitude. " Annals of the Geological Institute of Mexico , with Tomás Barrera (1930): 1-37. "The Apipilulco gypsum hatchery, Guerrero State." Annals of the Geological Institute of Mexico 28 (1930): 147-151. "Geological study on the Pachuca mineral." Mining Bulletin [Mexico] 2 (Feb. 1931): 29-41. "Geological report relative to the Huitzuco mineral, Guerrero." Mining Bulletin [Mexico], 6 (Jul. 1931): 1-8. Geological-mining chart of the State of Durango by Manuel Santillán México: UNAM, Instituto de Geología, 1932. Yearbook of the Institute of Geology 1932. Mexico, National Autonomous University of Mexico. Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Geodesy: Editorial "Cultura", 1933 (with nrique González M. "Cooper Resources of the World." Sixteenth International Geological Congress , Washington DC (1933): 386-387. Geological-mining chart of the State of Durango. [Map] Mexico: Graphic Workshops of the Nation: National of Mexico, Institute of Geology, 1936. "Copper in Mexico." Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress (1935): 379-406. "Beryl and Beryllium in Mexico." Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress Washington DC 2.62 (1936): 1091-1097. "Some research on platinum in Mexico" Report of the ... Session - International Geological Congress Washington DC 2.62 (1936): 1110-1111. Geological-mining chart of the state of Durango. Geological Institute. Geological and geological-mining charts of the Mexican Republic. No. 2. Mexico, Graphic Workshops of the nation, 1936. "Development et importance de la geologie appliquee au Mexique." Congres International, des Mines, de la. Metallurgie, et de la Geologie Appliquee - Paris, 20-26 October 1935. 2 (1936): 1035-1043. "Synopsis of the geology of Mexico." Oil Weekly 81.2 (Mar. 1936): 35-37. "Synopsis of the Geology of Mexico." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 20.4 (Apr. 1936): 394-402. Geological Institute of Mexico. Geological Chart of the Mexican Republic / Geological Institute of Mexico, Director Engineer Manuel Santillán. Mexico: Geological Institute of Mexico, 1937. The Geological Institute as a dependency of the National University of Mexico. Mexico: National University of Mexico, Institute of Geology, 1940. Report of C. Ing. Manuel Santillán, constitutional governor of the state, rendered before the H. Local Congress on the 1st. April 1944 on the occasion of the third year of his government administration. Tlaxcala, Tlax .: Talleres Gráficas del Estado, 1944. Study for the industrial use of forests in the Tepalcatepec Basin and state that the indigenous communities of Michoacán keep. Uruapan, Mexico: Tepalcatepec Commission, 1951. Background and bases for the organization of the company that will be in charge of installing the factory for the production of cellulose and paper in the vicinity of Ziracuaretiro, Mich. Mexico: Ed. And Impr. Beatriz de Silva, 1953. The Governor of Tlaxcala is the position representing the complete executive power of the government of the Mexican state of Tlaxcala, per the Political Constitution of the Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala. The governor is elected for a period of six years, and cannot be re-elected for any reason. The term of office begins on January 15 and ends on January 14, six years later. Elections are held 1 year prior to presidential elections. To be elected, the candidate must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico, at least 30 years of age, and a resident of Tlaxcala for at least 5 years prior to election. Governors of the Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala (1933–1937): Adolfo Bonilla, National Revolutionary Party, PNR (1937–1940): Isidro Candia, PNR (1940–1941): Joaquín Cisneros Molina, Party of the Mexican Revolution, PRM (1941–1944): Manuel Santillán, PRM (1944–1945): Mauro Angulo, PRM (1945–1951): Rafael Avila Bretón, PRM (1951–1957): Felipe Mazarraza PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1957–1963): Joaquín Cisneros Molina PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1963–1969): Anselmo Cervantes PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1969–1970): Ignacio Bonillas PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1970): Crisanto Cuéllar Abaroa PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1970–1975): Luciano Huerta Sánchez PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1975–1981): Emilio Sánchez Piedras PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1981–1987): Tulio Hernández Gómez PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1987–1992): Beatriz Paredes Rangel PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (1992–1993): Samuel Quiróz de la Vega (interim) (1993–1999): José Antonio Álvarez Lima PRD logo (Mexico).svg PRD[1] (1999–2005): Alfonso Sánchez Anaya PRD logo (Mexico).svg PRD (2005–2011): Héctor Ortiz Ortiz PAN logo (Mexico).svg PAN (2011–2016): Mariano González Zarur PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI (2017–Present): Marco Antonio Mena Rodríguez PRI logo (Mexico).svg PRI Tlaxcala (/tlɑːsˈkɑːlə/; Spanish: [tla(k)sˈkala] (About this soundlisten), [tla(ɣ)sˈkala]; from Nahuatl languages: Tlaxcallān Nahuatl pronunciation: [tɬaʃˈkalːaːn] (About this soundlisten)), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Tlaxcala), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 60 municipalities and its capital city is Tlaxcala. It is located in East-Central Mexico, in the altiplano region, with the eastern portion dominated by the Sierra Madre Oriental.[8] It is bordered by the states of Puebla to the north, east and south, México to the west and Hidalgo to the northwest. It is the smallest state of the republic, accounting for only 0.2% of the country's territory.[8] The state is named after its capital, Tlaxcala, which was also the name of the Pre-Columbian city and culture. The Tlaxcalans allied themselves with the Spanish to defeat the Aztecs, with concessions from the Spanish that allowed the territory to remain mostly intact throughout 300 years of colonial period.[9] After Mexican Independence, Tlaxcala was declared a federal territory, until 1857 when it was admitted as a state of the federation. Most of the state's economy is based on agriculture, light industry and tourism. The tourist industry is rooted in Tlaxcala's long history with major attractions being archeological sites such as Cacaxtla and colonial constructions in and around Tlaxcala city.[10] Contents 1 Name 2 Coat-of-arms 3 Geography 3.1 Political geography 3.2 Natural geography and climate 4 Economy 4.1 Agriculture 4.2 Industry and commerce 4.3 Tourism 4.4 Sex trade and human trafficking 5 Demographics 5.1 Major communities 6 History 6.1 Pre-Columbian 6.2 Spanish era 6.2.1 Conquest 6.2.2 Colonial period 6.3 Post-independence era 7 Gastronomy 8 Education 9 Media 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Name The name Tlaxcala pre-dates the state by centuries; it derives from the name of the capital city, which was also used to denote the territory controlled by this city in pre-Hispanic times. According to some historians, the name comes from an ancient word texcalli, which meant 'crag';[11] however, an alternative etymology stems from the Nahuatl word Tlaxcallān which means 'place of corn tortillas'.[11][12] The Aztec glyph that referred to this place has both elements, two green hills and two hands holding a corn tortilla.[11] Coat-of-arms The state's coat of arms is based on the coat of arms that was granted to the city in 1535. Its different elements have the following meanings: the red background represents courage; the castle symbolizes defensive power; the eagle with its open wings represents the spirit of vigilance; the border symbolizes protection and compensation; the green palms stand for victory, and the crowns are the symbol of royal authority. The letter I refers to Joanna of Castile, the mother of Charles I of Spain; the letter K (for Karl) represents the name of the king himself; and the letter F (for Felipe) belongs to Philip, later Philip II of Spain. The human skulls and cross-bones represent those who died during the Conquest.[11] Geography Political geography The state of Tlaxcala is located slightly east of center of Mexico between 97°37′07″ and 98°42′51″W and 19°05′43″ and 19°44′07″N. It is bordered by the states of Hidalgo, Puebla and Mexico State. It is the smallest state in terms of territory with only about 4,061 km2 (1,568 sq mi), representing about 0.2% of the entire country.[8] The state is divided into 60 municipalities, the largest of which are Tlaxcala, Apizaco, Huamantla, Zacatelco, Calpulalpan, Chiautempan and Tlaxco.[8] The political heart of the state is its capital, Tlaxcala, even though it is not the state's largest city. Tlaxcala lies at the foot of the northwestern slope of La Malinche volcano in the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is one of the oldest cities in Mexico, founded as an organized civilization before the 15th century. The Spanish political entity was founded by Hernán Cortés between 1520 and 1525 and given the Spanish name of New City of Our Lady of the Assumption. Its economy is still based on the traditional enterprises of agriculture, textiles, and the commerce of products of native peoples such as the Otomí, especially on market days. Other important cities include Santa Ana Chiautempan, the most populous city in the state, Apizaco, noted for its textile production and Huamantla, a farming and cattle town.[13][14] Natural geography and climate View of the La Malinche volcano Tlaxcala is a land-locked state situated on the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The average altitude for the state is 2,230 meters above sea level, making it a bit higher than the Valley of Mexico just to the southwest.[8] The western part of the state lies on the central plateau of Mexico while the east is dominated by the Sierra Madre Oriental, home of the 4,461 meter La Malinche volcano.[14][15] Most of the state is rugged terrain dominated by ridges and deep valleys, along with protruding igneous rock formations.[8][14] This ruggedness, along with large-scale weather phenomena such as the Intertropical Convergence Zone, gives the state a complex climate. Overall rain patterns for the state are about 400mm in the summer rainy season and 30mm in the winter. Locally, however, this varies dramatically between the drier plateaus and valleys and the wetter mountains.[16] Variations in altitude produce sub-climates between semi-tropical to temperate, with frosts likely in the higher elevations during the winter.[8][14] Temperate forests of pine, fir (abies religiosa), evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) and junipers (Juniperus communis) dominate the mountain highlands while the flatlands, with their drier climate, are characterized by agaves and prickly pear cactus (opunita).[8] The state has no major lakes or extremely large rivers. The principal water sources are the Atoyac-Zahuapan basin and the reservoir of the Atlangatepec dam.[8] Economy Agriculture Much of Tlaxcala's economy is based on agriculture, livestock and forestry. Principle crops for the state are maize and barley, along with important quantities of wheat, beans, animal feed and potatoes,[8][14] using about 60% of the state's land.[17] Although the state has 15 dams and 483 wells to provide water for agriculture, 88% of the state's agriculture is dependent on the summer rainy season, leaving it vulnerable to climatic phenomena such as El Niño or La Niña.[16][17] Most livestock raised in the state is beef cattle and dairy cows[8] along with the renowned fighting bulls.[15] Other important animals are pigs, sheep, horses, poultry and bees. About 35,842 hectares, or 6.7% of the state is dedicated to livestock. Due to the limited surface water, there is no commercial fishing or fish-farming here.[8][17] The state's forestry enterprises are located in the municipalities of Tlaxco, Terrenate, Altzayanca, Calpulalpan and Nanacamilpa,[8] with about 35,842 hectares of land dedicated to this. However, the amount of land dedicated to forestry has been declining in recent years. To combat this, in 2007 2,484,687 trees were planted on about 2,477 hectares of land.[17] Industry and commerce See also: Tlaxcala handcrafts and folk art Light manufacturing has developed on a significant scale in the state, especially products produced for export outside the state.[15](comerico) These products include clothing, foam and plastic products, paper products, publishing, textiles and automobile works. Organized industria areas in the state include the Malinche Corridor, the Apizaco-Xalostoc-Huamantla Corridor, the Panzacola Corridor, the “industrial cities” of Xicohténcatli I, Xicohténcatli II and Xicohténcatli III, the industrial parks of Calpulalpan, Xiloxoxtla, Ixtacuixtla, and Nanacamilpa as well as the industrial areas of Velasco and Atlangatepec.[18] Most commercial activity in the state occurs in the municipalities of Apizaco, Chiautempan, Tlaxcala, Huamantla, San Pablo del Monte and Zacatelco. In the last economic census in 2003, INEGI registered 21,307 commercial establishments in the state, most of these being small individually or family-owned enterprises. There are also fifty-nine tianguis (tent markets which are movable), seventeen municipal markets, eleven malls, twenty-six department stores and fourteen commercial centers of other types.[19] In addition, the state is an important link between Mexico's major eastern port, Veracruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, and Mexico City, in the interior.[14] Tourism View of the ruins at Cacaxtla Tourist attractions primarily consist of pre-Hispanic archeological sites and colonial establishments with examples of both religious and civil constructions.[8] However, in comparison with the rest of Mexico, Tlaxcala's archeological and colonial attractions are barely known.[20] Tlaxcala's major attractions are the archeological sites of Cacaxtla, Xochitécatl and Tizatlán,[8] which were not fully investigated until the 20th century, like most of the rest of the sites of this state. When Hernán Cortés came, Mesoamerican civilization here was considered to be in the Post-Classic period, and the kingdom was filled with temples, palaces and grand plazas that impressed the Spaniards.[10] One of the murals at Cacaxtla Tlaxcala's two major archeological sites are Xochitécatl and Cacaxtla. Xochitécatl was built between 300 and 400 A.D.[21] and probably reached its peak between 600 and 800 A.D. There is evidence that occupation of the sites extends much further back in time than the city. The ceremonial center is situated on a hill with four main structures called “The Spiral Building,” “The Volcano Base,” “The Serpent Pyramid” and “The Flower Pyramid.” The last is the most important and is topped by two monolithic pillars.[10] This pyramid is the fourth largest in Mexico (by base size) and the Spiral Pyramid is one of the few circular ones to be found.[21] The Flower Pyramid at Xochitécatl Cacaxtla was built later than Xochitecatl, between 600 and 900 A.D., and is the far larger of the two.[21] It was discovered only about thirty years ago near the modern town of San Miguel del Milago.[10] The main attraction here is the murals painted with pigments made from mineral sources. Some of the best works include the Scorpion Man at the Venus Temple, Cacaxtli with corn plant at the Red Temple, the Battle Mural, which is 22 meters long and contains 48 human figures and the Bird Man and the Jaguar Man found in “Porch A.”[21] Another interesting archeological site is called Tizatlán. This site does not contain pyramids; instead the buildings here are made of adobe brick, a very unusual construction material for this place and time. The site contains two stucco-covered altars with murals that follow the Borgia Group codex style with images of gods and important human figures, including gods such as Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc and Mayahuel and were the scene of human sacrifices.[10][21] Mural at Tizatlan The state contains more than 1,000 archeological sites with only seven fully excavated and open to the public.[20] The last of these is Ocotelulco, situated on a hill near the town of San Francisco Ocotelulco. It is a collection of dwellings with raised areas for ceremonial purposes. Its altar is similar to the one found at Tezcatlipoca, decorated with colorful frescos with images of Quetzalcoatl, Xolotl and Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. These images are in the style of the Post-classic period and have been dated to about 1450.[10] Tlaxcala is home to some of the earliest colonial architecture and art. The oldest church in Mexico, built in 1521 and the first monasteries, built by the Franciscans, were built here in 1524. Many other churches and monasteries were built in the state in the 16th and early 17th centuries.[22] Just about every municipality has colonial-era structures such as churches, municipal palaces and plazas but the best examples are in and around the city of Tlaxcala.[8] The Temple and Ex-monastery of San Francisco, built in the early 16th century, is located about 14 km southeast of the capital city. Only the church retains its original function; the former monastery now houses a school. The State Government Palace is located in the city proper and was creating by conjoining the former mayor's house, the treasury and the state warehouse, which is architecturally held together with a Plateresque facade. The city's cathedral, called Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, built in the 16th century. Its main altar preserves a Baroque altarpiece with a depiction of the baptism of the Lord Maxixcatzin, with Hernan Cortes and Malinche as godparents. A bit later, the Basilica of Octolan was built in the 17th and 18th centuries to comply with a demand of the Virgin Mary who reportedly appeared before Juan Diego Bernardino here in 1541.[22] It is considered be the culmination of the Baroque style in Tlaxcala.[21] The state also contains 140 haciendas, which vary in their state of conservation but some are promoted for tourism.[20] The Tlaxcala flag was painted by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin in the interior of the State Government Palace Regional festivals here are known for dances featuring men in mustached masks (imitating Spaniards), large-plumed hats and colorful garb. This is especially apparent during Carnival, when over 4,000 folk dancers from different villages come to the capital to celebrate.[20] In a village just north of the capital, in San Juan Totolac, every year they commemorate the departure of 400 families in 1591 who went north to colonize the land known as the Great Chichimeca, which primarily covers the northeast of modern Mexico. Streets in Huamantla are decorated with flowers in intricate designs on “La Noche que Nadie Duerme” (The Night No One Sleeps) in August.[23] Many other festivals are in the state, many of which display the state's long tradition of bullfighting.[20] View of La Malinche volcano Ecotourism is relatively new here and much of it centers on La Malinche National Park, home to the La Malinche volcano, which is 4,461 m (14,636 ft) high.[14][24] Here one can camp, mountain bike, horseback ride, rappel and climb the volcano itself. At the peak of La Malinche, it is possible to see the volcanos of Popocatépetl, Iztaccíhuatl (in Puebla/Mexico State) and Pico de Orizaba (Veracruz).[24] Ninety five percent of those visiting Tlaxcala are from Mexico and most of these are from neighboring Puebla state. Foreign visitors are mostly German, French and Swiss who are interested in Mexican history.[20] Sex trade and human trafficking Tenancingo, a town in Tlaxcala, is the beginning of a pipeline in an illicit, international trafficking trade, and considered to be the epicenter for sex trafficking in Mexico.[25][26] Roots of the practice of sex trafficking date back to the 1960s.[27] An unnamed Mexican charity told the BBC that it estimated of the 10,000 inhabitants of Tenancingo, 1,000 are sex traffickers.[28] Sexual exploitation, human trafficking, and pimping are a major source of income for the town, although an exact dollar amount is not known.[29] These practices have been denounced by three NGO's.[30] Recent investigations and a documentary Pimp City: A Journey to the Center of the Sex Trade (2014), have revealed that the small town was identified by the United States Department of Justice as a provider of female sex slaves to the United States.[31] According to the documentary, the entire political structure and police force of the town are implicated in human trafficking and sex trade.[32] Demographics Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1895[33] 168,358 —     1900 172,315 +2.4% 1910 184,171 +6.9% 1921 178,570 −3.0% 1930 205,458 +15.1% 1940 224,063 +9.1% 1950 284,551 +27.0% 1960 346,699 +21.8% 1970 420,638 +21.3% 1980 556,597 +32.3% 1990 761,277 +36.8% 1995 883,924 +16.1% 2000 962,646 +8.9% 2005 1,068,207 +11.0% 2010 1,169,936 +9.5% 2015[34] 1,272,847 +8.8% Tlaxcala is the smallest and one of the most densely populated of the states of Mexico.[14][15] The state comprises only 0.2% of the nation's territory, but had a population of 1,068,207 in 2005.[14][35] Population density ranges from 50 people/km2 in the rural municipality of Atlangatepec to 269 people/km2 in the city of Tlaxcala. The largest population centers are Tlaxcala, Huamantla, Apizaco, San Pablo del Monte, Zacatelco and Chiautempan, whose 361,328 inhabitants represent over 33% of the state's population. However, the largest population increases are occurring in the municipalities of Tzompamtepec, Yauhquemecan, and Santa Isabel Xiloxoxtla. Of Tlaxcala's 60 municipalities, ten have a poverty index rating of “very low,” twenty-nine have a rating of “low,” seventeen have a ranking of “medium” and only four have a ranking of “high.”[35] According to data through the II Census of Population and Housing conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) with census date of June 12, 2010, the state of Tlaxcala until this year had a total of 1,169,936 inhabitants; of that number, 565,775 were men and 604,161 were women. The annual growth rate for the entity during the period 2005-2010 was 1.8%. The average size of households in the state is 4.3, while the national level is 3.9, according to the 2010 population census, however, by municipality varies from 3.8 to 5 persons per household. In the same year (2010) on average in the state of Tlaxcala 293 people per square kilometer, while nationally there are 57 people per square kilometer. Until that year 78% of the population lives in urban areas and 22% in rural, data also the II Census of Population and Housing conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) in 2010. Major communities Apizaco Apizaco Huamantla Huamantla Num. City Municipality Pop. Num. City Municipality Pop. Zacatelco Zacatelco Chiautempan Chiautempan 1 Vicente Guerrero San Pablo del Monte Municipality 60 001 8 Papalotla Papalotla de Xicohténcatl Municipality 22 969 2 Huamantla Huamantla Municipality 51 996 9 Ocotlán Tlaxcala Municipality 22 248 3 Apizaco Apizaco Municipality 49 506 10 La Magdalena Tlaltelulco Municipality La Magdalena Tlaltelulco Municipality 16 834 4 Chiautempan Chiautempan Municipality 48 030 11 Teolocholco Municipality Teolocholco Municipality 16 240 5 Zacatelco Zacatelco Municipality 38 466 12 Tetla de la Solidaridad Municipality Tetla de la Solidaridad Municipality 15 161 6 Calpulalpan Calpulalpan Municipality 33 263 13 Tlaxco Tlaxco Municipality 14 806 7 Contla Contla Municipality 27 610 14 Tlaxcala Tlaxcala Municipality 14 692 History The area known as Tlaxcala has officially been a number of different entities, from an indigenous kingdom during the Pre-Columbian era, a district of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain, a territory of the Republic of Mexico, and finally a “free and sovereign" state in Mexico. Tlaxcalans consider their fight to remain a distinct entity a hallmark of their history, resisting in turn the Aztecs, the Spanish colonial government, the various monarchies and republics of an independent Mexico, and even the claims on its territory by its neighboring state of Puebla.[36] Pre-Columbian Map showing location of Tlaxcallan kingdom Evidence of human occupation in what is now the state of Tlaxcala extends back to 12,000 BCE[citation needed], with the earliest identified cultures being Tzompantepec (1700–1200 BCE), Tlatempa (1200–800 BCE), and Texoloc (800–400 BCE).[21] The Toltecs also had a presence, but the first major native culture here was the Olmec Xicalanca.[9][14] This civilization fell into decline after 900 AD and was replaced by a sub-group of the Chichimecas. In the 14th century, the Chichimecas were driven out by the Tlaxcalans, a Nahua people and the indigenous ethnicity that still dominates the state. The Tlaxcalans founded the city of Tlaxcala and then began to subdue the surrounding peoples.[9] Eventually, the Tlaxcalan nation would evolve into a confederation of four sub-states called Tepectipac, Ocotelulco, Tizatlán and Quiahuixtlán.[21] The pre-Columbian Tlaxcalan state developed roughly at the same time as another Nahua people, the Mexica, were building the vast Aztec Empire with its capital at Tenochtitlan. From the 14th century, these two nations were in near constant state of war. However, even though the Aztecs managed to build the largest empire in Mesoamerica, they never did conquer Tlaxcala.[9][36] By the time the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, Tlaxcala was an independent enclave nearly completely surrounded by the Aztec Empire. This left Tlaxcala economically isolated, leaving it without goods such as cotton and salt. This and the constant warfare with the Mexica would give the Tlaxcalans reasons to ally with the Spanish.[9] Spanish era Conquest "It is more inhabited than other provinces; and its inhabitants, who are the least oppressed of any in New Spain, owe this favour to the alliance that their republican ancestors made with the disciplined robbers whom Cortés commanded, and who subdued the Mexican empire. They are the most intelligent of all the Americans subject to Spain." -Thomas Kitchin, The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe, 1778[37] When Hernán Cortés and the Spanish landed on the Veracruz coast, they were greeted by the Totonacas, who were a subject people of the Aztecs and saw the Spanish as a way to free themselves of rule from Tenochtitlan. They allied with the Spanish, and when Cortés decided to go inland to Tenochtitlan, the Totonacas guided them to other subject peoples who would be willing to ally with them, including and especially the Tlaxcalans. However, after entering Tlaxcalan territory, the Spanish were met by a hostile Tlaxcalan force of 30,000. The Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish and their indigenous allies in a number of battles, with the Spanish inflicting heavy casualties on the Tlaxcalans despite their superior numbers. The Spaniards’ prowess in battle impressed the Tlaxcalan King Xīcohtēncatl Āxāyacatzin, who then not only allowed the Spanish to pass through his territory, but also invited them into the capital city of Tlaxcala.[9][14] Cortés stayed in the city of Tlaxcala for 20 days and forged an alliance with the Tlaxcalans to bring down Tenochtitlan. Cortes added 6,000 Tlaxcala warriors to his ranks and arrived to Tenochtitlan in November 1519. They were received by Emperor Moctezuma II, who understood the potential danger of a Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance. Despite initial friendliness, intrigue and siege of the capital followed, with the Aztec backlash sending Cortes’ very wounded army limping back to Tlaxcalan territory. The Tlaxcalan king gave the Spanish refuge but promised further assistance in the conquest of Tenochtitlan only under certain conditions including perpetual exemption from tribute of any sort, part of the spoils of war, and control of two provinces that bordered Tlaxcala. Cortés agreed. Cortes and the Tlaxcalans returned to Tenochtitlan in December 1520. After many battles, including street-by-street fighting in Tenochtitlan itself, the Aztec Empire fell in August 1521.[9] Colonial period Historian Charles Gibson published (1952) a path breaking study of Tlaxcala, from the indigenous viewpoint.[38] He particularly focused on ways that the Tlaxcalans shaped the polity's history for its own advantage, and how the four-part organization of the polity was maintained during the early colonial era. A particularly important source for the early colonial history of Tlaxcala is a set of records in the indigenous language of Nahuatl, now published as The Tlaxcalan Actas.[39] These town council records are a type of indigenous language source used by scholars in the field known as the New Philology. James Lockhart drew on these materials in his study The Nahuas After the Conquest [40] For the most part, the Spanish kept their promise to the Tlaxcalans.[9] Unlike Tenochtitlan and other cities, Tlaxcala was not destroyed after the Conquest. They also allowed many Tlaxcalans to retain their indigenous names. The Tlaxcalans were mostly able to keep their traditional form of government. For 300 years of colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain rule, the Spanish mostly held true to the Tlaxcalans' conditions of 1520.[9][14] One of the major cultural interventions, however, was the evangelization of the region. Franciscan friars arrived in 1524. They built monasteries and churches and renamed the city of Tlaxcala “Nuestra Señora de la Asunción.”[9] The first archbishopric of New Spain was established here. Most of the conversion work was done by 1530. In 1535, the city of Tlaxcala received its coat-of-arms from the Spanish king.[9] Unlike the rest of Mexico, Tlaxcala was under the direct protection of the Spanish crown, part of its reward for its support in the Conquest. This shielded the Tlaxcalans from the worst of the oppression of the native peoples, which reached its peak in the 1530s. In fact, Tlaxcalan allegiance to the Spaniards became an enduring partnership. Tlaxcalan forces joined Spanish forces to put down revolts such as the Mixtón Rebellion and accompanied them to conquer places such as Guatemala and northern Mexico. In the late 16th century, Christianized and sedentary Tlaxcalans were recruited to settle and pacify the Chichimecas in what is now northeast Mexico. Tlaxcalans were used not only to fight but also to establish towns in villages in this nomadic people's territory, to be a kind of example to them. Over 400 Tlaxcalan families would move north, but not until they negotiated and won special concessions from the Spanish. They included orders called “mandamientos de amparo” to ensure that these families’ heirs would not lose the lands that were being granted to them. They also included freedom from tributes, taxes and personal service in perpetuity. These settlers were instrumental in pacifying this part of Mexico, and although these families eventually intermarried with the Chichimeca, they never completely lost their Tlaxcalan identity. During the colonial period, the Tlaxcalans were successful in keeping the concessions granted to them by the Spanish crown. In 1585, when the territory of Tlaxcala was formally established, it roughly had the same borders as the old kingdom of Tlaxcala. While the neighboring territory of Puebla had some authority over this territory, the city of Tlaxcala remained independently governed until Mexican Independence in 1821. However, the indigenous population who had been living in Tlaxcala were somehow reduced to a small minority. According to Catholic Encyclopedia, in 1625 the city of Tlaxcala had only 700 people, compared to the 300,000 population of a century ago, due to epidemics, emigrations, and the construction of a canal which serves for the Mexican Valley.[41] Post-independence era After victory in the Mexican War of Independence and the end of the First Mexican Empire with the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, on November 24, 1824, Tlaxcala was declared a federal territory, Tlaxcala Territory.[42] Tlaxcala was finally admitted as a state of the federation on December 9, 1856.[1] The state was subdivided into five provinces, but had roughly the same dimensions, but somewhat less than before. Later, the state was able to recover some of that lost territory when the region known as Calpulapan was reunited in the 1860s.[21][36] An interesting note is that the state was governed from 1885 to 1911 by Próspero Cahuantzi, one of the few Mexicans of indigenous origin to be a state governor.[14] Gastronomy The cuisine of the state is similar to that of neighboring Hidalgo, Puebla and Federal District of Mexico City, featuring dishes such as barbacoa, mixiote, tamales, tacos, quesadillas and more. The state is known for the use of a number of ingredients in these dishes. One of these is the use of a number of edible insects, many of which are considered delicacies, such as escamoles (ant eggs) and maguey larvae, as well as others locally known as padrecitos, mecapales, toritos and tenanas. Vegetable items include a wide variety of mushrooms (often harvested from the wild), squash flowers, chilacayote, xoconostle (a kind of cactus fruit), nopal and epazote. Like neighboring Puebla, moles are an important element, especially for dishes made for special occasions. Two local versions include mole prieto and mole de ladrillo.[43] Education The formal state educational system of the state accommodates only 53% of eligible schoolchildren. Almost all of the rest are schooled in pre-schools, indigenous educational systems and other centers. Primary and secondary education is mostly provided by the state Secretary of Education. Indigenous education is a system of preschools and primary schools which meet the cultural demands of indigenous populations of the state. These are largely located in the municipalities of Ixtenco, Contla de Juan C., San Pablo del Monte, Teolocholco, Tetlanohcan and la Magdalena.[44] High school and vocational education is provided by state school systems named CBTIS, CETIS, CECYTE,CBTA, COBAT and CONALEP. Most of these schools are of the vocational type. Higher education is provided by both public and prívate institutions, with the most important of these being the Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala (UAT), which also offers the widest range of majors. Other public universities and colleges include the Instituto Tecnológico de Apizaco, Instituto Tecnológico Agropecuario de Xocoyucan, Escuela Normal Estatal Lic. Benito Juárez, and the Universidad Tecnológica de Tlaxcala. Private institutions include the Universidad del Valle, Universidad de Calpulalpan, Instituto Tecnológico de Tlaxcala and UPAEP Tlaxcala.[44] In addition to traditional centers of education there are state-run technical training centers, which are considered to be an educational priority for Tlaxcala. These centers train people with short courses with industrial or trade skills. Some of these centers include the Centro de Capacitación Tecnológica Industrial (CECATI) and the Instituto de capacitación para el Trabajo en Tlaxcala (ICATLAX).[44] The state also has a library system with 129 public libraries located in 59 municipalities, with a collection of 588,758 volumes.[44] Media
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