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MAURITIUS

MAURITIUS IS AN ISLAND NATION IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Mauritius  ( /məˈrɪʃ(i)əs,   mɔː-/   ( listen )  mər-ISH-(ee-)əs,mor- ; French:  Maurice   [mɔʁis,moʁis]  ( listen ) ;  MauritianCreole : Moris   [moʁis] ), officially the Republicof Mauritius, is an  island nation  in the  IndianOcean  about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) off the southeastcoast of the African continent, east of  Madagascar . It includes the main island(also called Mauritius), as well as  Rodrigues , Agaléga  and  St. Brandon . [10] [11]  Theislands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, along with nearby  Réunion  (a  French overseas department ), arepart of the  MascareneIslands . The main island of Mauritius, where most of the population isconcentrated, hosts the capital and largest city,  PortLouis . The country spans 2,040 square kilometres(790 sq mi) and has an  exclusive economic zone  covering 2,300,000square kilometres (890,000 sq mi). [12]

Arab  sailorswere the first to discover the uninhabited island, around 975, and they calledit Dina Arobi . [13] [14]  Theearliest confirmed discovery was in 1507 by Portuguese sailors, who otherwisetook little interest in the islands. The Dutch took possession in 1598,establishing a succession of short-lived settlements over a period of about 120years, before abandoning their efforts in 1710. France took control in 1715,renaming it  Isle de France . In1810, the  UnitedKingdom   seized the island , andfour years later, in the  Treaty of Paris , France ceded Mauritius and itsdependencies to the United Kingdom. The British colony of Mauritius includedRodrigues, Agaléga, St. Brandon, the Chagos Archipelago ,and, until 1906, the  Seychelles . [10] [15]  Mauritiusand France dispute sovereignty over the island of Tromelin  as the Treaty of Paris failed tomention it specifically. [16]  Mauritiusremained a primarily plantation-based colony of the United Kingdom untilindependence in 1968.

In 1965, three years before Mauritius became independent, the UKsplit off the Chagos Archipelago  fromMauritian territory, and also split off the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, andDesroches from the Seychelles, to form the  British Indian OceanTerritory  (BIOT). [17]  The  local population was forcibly expelled  andthe largest island,  DiegoGarcia , was leased to the United States. The UK has restricted accessto the Chagos Archipelago, barring entry to casual tourists, the media, andformer inhabitants. [18]  Thesovereignty of the Chagos is  disputed  betweenMauritius and the UK. In February 2019, the  International Court ofJustice  issued an advisory opinion ordering the UK to return theChagos Islands to Mauritius as rapidly as possible to complete thedecolonisation of Mauritius.

Owing to its geographic location and centuries of colonialism,the  people ofMauritius  are highly diverse in ethnicity,  culture ,language and faith. It is the only country in Africa where  Hinduism  isthe most practised religion. [19] [20]   Indo-Mauritians  makeup the bulk of the population with significant  Creole ,  Sino-Mauritian  and  Franco-Mauritian  minorities.The island's government is closely modelled on the  Westminster parliamentarysystem  and Mauritius is highly ranked for  economic  and  political freedom  along with being the onlyAfrican country with  fulldemocracy . [21]  Mauritiusis also the continent's only country with "very high"  HumanDevelopment Index . According to the  WorldBank , the country is classified as a  high-income economy . [22]  Mauritiusis also ranked as the most competitive, and one of the most developed economiesin the African region. [23]  Thecountry is a  welfarestate . The government provides free  universal healthcare ,  freeeducation  up through the  tertiary level  and free publictransportation for students, senior citizens, and the disabled. [24]  In2019, Mauritius was ranked the most peaceful African country by the  Global Peace Index . [25]

Along with the other Mascarene Islands, Mauritius is known forits  varied flora and fauna . Many species are endemicto the island. The island was the only known home of the  dodo , which,along with several other avian species, was made extinct by human activitiesrelatively soon after the island's settlement. There are other endemic animalslike for example: the Mauritian parakeet, the kestrel, and the pink pigeon.

Etymology [ edit ]

The first historical evidence of the existence of an island nowknown as Mauritius is on a map produced by the  Italian   cartographer  AlbertoCantino in 1502. [26] [27]  Fromthis, it appears that Mauritius bore the name Dina Arobi , verylikely the name shared with the Portuguese by sailors from the subcontinent. In1507, Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island. The island appearswith the  Portuguese  names Cirne  or Do-Cerne  onearly Portuguese maps, probably from the name of a ship in the 1507 expedition.Another Portuguese sailor,  Dom   PedroMascarenhas , gave the name  Mascarenes  to the archipelago.

In 1598, a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwycklanded at  GrandPort  and named the island Mauritius , in honourof  Prince Maurice van Nassau ,  stadtholder  ofthe  DutchRepublic . Later the island became a French colony and was renamed  Isle de France . On 3December 1810, the French surrendered the island to the United Kingdom duringthe  NapoleonicWars . Under British rule, the island's name reverted to Mauritius   /məˈrɪʃəs/   ( listen ) .Mauritius is also commonly known as Maurice  (pronounced  [mɔˈʁis] )and Île Maurice  in French, Moris  (pronounced  [moʁis] ) in  MauritianCreole . [28]

Early history [ edit ]

The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its firstrecorded visit by Portuguese sailors in the beginning of the 16th century. Thename Dina Arobi has been associated with Arab sailors who first discovered theisland.

Portuguese explorations of Mauritius [ edit ]

The  Treaty of Tordesillas  purported togive  Portugal  theright to colonise this part of world. In 1507,  Portuguese  sailorscame to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base. Diogo Fernandes Pereira ,a Portuguese navigator, was the first European known to land in Mauritius. Henamed the island "Ilha do Cisne" ("Island of the Swan").The Portuguese did not stay long as they were not interested in these islands. [29]

The  MascareneIslands  were named after  PedroMascarenhas ,  Viceroy of Portuguese India , afterhis visit to the islands in 1512.

Rodrigues Island  was named after  Portuguese explorer  Diogo Rodrigues , who first came upon the island in1528.

Dutch Mauritius (1638–1710) [ edit ]

In 1598 a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand Van Warwycklanded at  GrandPort  and named the island "Mauritius" after  Prince Maurice of Nassau  ( Dutch : Mauritsvan Nassau ) of the  DutchRepublic . The Dutch inhabited the island in 1638, from which theyexploited  ebony  treesand introduced  sugarcane ,  domesticanimals  and  deer . It wasfrom here that Dutch navigator  Abel Tasman  set out to seek the GreatSouthern Land, mapping parts of  Tasmania , New Zealand and  NewGuinea . The first Dutch settlement lasted 20 years. In 1639, slavesarrived in Mauritius from Madagascar. The Dutch East India Company brought themto cut down ebony trees and to work in the new tobacco and sugar caneplantations. [30]  Severalattempts to establish a colony permanently were subsequently made, but thesettlements never developed enough to produce dividends, causing the Dutch toabandon Mauritius in 1710. [29] [31]  A1755 article in the English  Leeds Intelligencer  claims that theisland was abandoned due to the large number of  long tailed macaque  monkeys "whichdestroyed everything in it," and that it was also known at the time asthe Island of Monkeys. [32]  Portuguesesailors had  introduced  these monkeys to the islandfrom their native habitat in Southeast Asia, prior to Dutch rule. [33]

French Mauritius (1715–1810) [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Isle de France (Mauritius)

France, which already controlled neighbouring Île Bourbon(now  Réunion ), tookcontrol of Mauritius in 1715 and renamed it  Isle de France . In1723, the  Code Noir  wasestablished to categorise one group of human beings as "goods", inorder for the owner of these goods to be able to obtain insurance money andcompensation in case of loss of his "goods". [34]  The1735 arrival of French governor  Bertrand-François Mahé deLa Bourdonnais  coincided with development of a prosperous economy basedon sugar production. Mahé de La Bourdonnais established  PortLouis  as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. [29]  Underhis governorship, numerous buildings were erected, a number of which are stillstanding. These include part of Government House, the Château de Mon Plaisir,and the Line Barracks, the headquarters of the  police force . The island was under theadministration of the  French East India Company , whichmaintained its presence until 1767. [29]  Duringthe French rule, slaves were brought from parts of Africa such as Mozambiqueand Zanzibar. [35]  Asa result, the island's population rose dramatically from 15,000 to 49,000within thirty years. During the late eighteenth century, African slavesaccounted for around 80 percent of the island's population, and by the earlynineteenth century there were 60,000 slaves on the island. [30]  Inearly 1729, Indians from  Pondicherry, India , arrived in Mauritius aboard thevessel La Sirène . Work contracts for these craftsmen were signed in1734 at the time when they acquired their freedom. [36]

From 1767 to 1810, except for a brief period during the  FrenchRevolution  when the inhabitants set up a government virtuallyindependent of France, the island was controlled by officials appointed by theFrench government.  Jacques-Henri Bernardin deSaint-Pierre  lived on the island from 1768 to 1771, then went back toFrance, where he wrote  Paul etVirginie , a love story that made the Isle de France famous wherever theFrench language was spoken. In 1796 the settlers broke away from French controlwhen the government in Paris attempted to abolish slavery. [37]  Twofamous French governors were the Vicomte de Souillac (who constructed theChaussée in Port Louis [38]  andencouraged farmers to settle in the district of Savanne) and  Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux  (whosaw to it that the French in the Indian Ocean should have their headquarters inMauritius instead of  Pondicherry  inIndia). [39]   Charles Mathieu IsidoreDecaen  was a successful general in the  French Revolutionary Wars  and,in some ways, a rival of  Napoléon I . He ruled as  Governor of Isle de France  andRéunion from 1803 to 1810. British naval  cartographer  and explorer  MatthewFlinders  was arrested and detained by General Decaen on the islandfrom 1803 to 1810, [40] [41]  incontravention of an order from Napoléon. During the  NapoleonicWars , Mauritius became a base from which  Frenchcorsairs  organised successful raids on British commercial ships.The raids continued until 1810, when a  Royal Navy  expedition led by  Commodore   JosiasRowley ,  R.N. ,an  Anglo-Irish   aristocrat , was sent to capture the island.Despite winning the  Battle of Grand Port , the only French navalvictory over the British during these wars, the  French could not prevent the British from landing  at  CapMalheureux  three months later. They formally surrendered the islandon the fifth day of the invasion, 3 December 1810, [39]  onterms allowing settlers to keep their land and property and to use the Frenchlanguage and law of France in criminal and civil matters. Under British rule,the island's name reverted to Mauritius. [29]  Theswift conquest of Mauritius was fictionalised in the novel  The Mauritius Command  by  PatrickO'Brian , first published in 1977.

British Mauritius (1810–1968) [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  British Mauritius

1830–1835: British rule and reform [ edit ]

The British administration, which began with  Sir Robert Farquhar  as  its first governor , oversawrapid social and economic changes. However, it was tainted by the Ratsitatane  episode. Ratsitatane , nephew of King Radama of  Madagascar , wasbrought to Mauritius as a political prisoner. He managed to escape from prisonand plotted a rebellion that would free the island's slaves. He was betrayed byhis associate Laizaf and was caught by a group of militiamen led byFranco-Mauritian lawyer  Adrien d'Épinay  and  summarilyexecuted . [42]  Hewas beheaded at Plaine Verte on 15 April 1822, and his head was displayed as adeterrent against possible slave rebellions. [43]

In 1832, d'Épinay launched the first Mauritian  newspaper  (LeCernéen ), which was not controlled by the government. In the same year,there was a move by the procureur-general  to abolish slaverywithout compensation to the slave owners. This gave rise to discontent, and, tocheck an eventual rebellion, the government ordered all the inhabitants tosurrender their arms. Furthermore, a stone fortress, Fort Adelaide, was builton a hill (now known as the Citadel hill) in the centre of Port Louis to quellany uprising. [38]

Slavery  wasgradually abolished over several years after 1833, and the planters ultimatelyreceived two million  poundssterling  in compensation for the loss of their slaves, who had beenimported from Africa and Madagascar during the French occupation. [44] [45]

1834–1921: Indian labour imported [ edit ]

The  abolition of slavery  hadimportant impacts on Mauritius's society, economy and population. The plantersbrought a large number of  indentured labourers  from India to workin the sugar cane fields. Between 1834 and 1921, around half a millionindentured labourers were present on the island. They worked on sugar estates,factories, in transport and on construction sites. Additionally, the Britishbrought 8,740  Indian  soldiersto the island. [29]  Aapravasi Ghat , in the bay at  PortLouis  and now a  UNESCO  site,was the first British  colony  toserve as a major reception centre for  indentured servants .

An important figure of the 19th century was Rémy Ollier, ajournalist of mixed origin. In 1828, the colour bar was officially abolished inMauritius, but British governors gave little power to coloured persons, andappointed only whites as leading officials. Rémy Ollier petitioned to  QueenVictoria  to allow coloureds in the council of government, and thisbecame possible a few years later. He also made Port Louis become amunicipality so that the citizens could administer the town through their ownelected representatives. A street has been named after him in Port Louis, andhis bust was erected in the Jardin de la Compagnie in 1906. [39]

In 1885  a new constitution  wasintroduced. It was referred to as Cens Démocratique  and itincorporated some of the principles advocated by one of the Creole leaders,Onésipho Beaugeard. It created elected positions in the Legislative Council —although the franchise was restricted mainly to the white French andfair-skinned Indian elite who owned real estate. In 1886, Governor  John Pope Hennessy  nominated Gnanadicarayen Arlanda  asthe first ever  Indo-Mauritian  memberof the ruling Council — despite the sugar oligarchy's preference for rivalIndo-Mauritian Emile Sandapa. Arlanda served until 1891. [46]

Two main political parties were active at that time, thepro-Hennessy party being Sir  William Newton 's ReformParty where as the anti-Hennessy party Democrats was led by Gustave de Coriolisand Onésipho Beaugeard. [47]

The labourers brought from India were not always fairly treated,and a German, Adolph von Plevitz, made himself the unofficial protector ofthese immigrants. He mixed with many of the labourers, and in 1871 helped themto write a petition that was sent to  Governor Gordon . Acommission was appointed to look into the complaints made by the Indianimmigrants, and in 1872 two lawyers, appointed by the British Crown, were sentfrom England to make an inquiry. This Royal Commission recommended severalmeasures that would affect the lives of Indian labourers during the next fiftyyears. [39]

In November 1901,  Mahatma Gandhi  visited Mauritius, on hisway from South Africa to India. He stayed on the island for two weeks, andurged the Indo-Mauritian community to take an interest in education and to playa more active role in politics. Back in India, he sent over a younglawyer, Manilal Doctor ,to improve the plight of the Indo-Mauritians. [48]

1901–1914: Modernization and reform [ edit ]

In 1901, faster links were established with the island ofRodrigues thanks to the  wireless . [48]

In 1903, motorcars were introduced in Mauritius, and in 1910 thefirst taxis, operated by Joseph Merven, came into service. The electrificationof Port Louis took place in 1909, and in the same decade the Mauritius HydroElectric Company of the Atchia Brothers  wasauthorised to provide power to the towns of upper Plaines Wilhems.

The coat of arms of Mauritius was adopted in 1906, consisting ofan Sambur deer  and the extinct  dodo , whichhas currently been a symbol of national identity since independence. [49]

The 1910s were a period of political agitation. The risingmiddle class (made up of doctors, lawyers, and teachers) began to challenge thepolitical power of the sugar cane landowners. Dr. Eugène Laurent, mayor of PortLouis, was the leader of this new group; his party, Action Libérale, demandedthat more people should be allowed to vote in the elections. Action Libéralewas opposed by the Parti de l'Ordre, led by Henri Leclézio, the mostinfluential of the sugar magnates. [39]

In 1911, there were riots in Port Louis due to a false rumourthat Dr. Eugène Laurent had been murdered by the oligarchs in Curepipe. Thisbecame known as the  1911 Curepipe riots . Shops and offices weredamaged in the capital, and one person was killed. [48]

In the same year, 1911, the first public cinema shows took placein Curepipe, and, in the same town, a stone building was erected to house theRoyal College. [48]  In1912, a wider telephone network came into service, used by the government,business firms, and a few private households.

1914–1919: World War I prosperity [ edit ]

World WarI  broke out in August 1914. Many Mauritians volunteered tofight in Europe against the Germans and in  Mesopotamia  against the Turks. But thewar affected Mauritius much less than the wars of the eighteenth century. Infact, the 1914–1918 war was a period of great prosperity, due to a boom insugar prices. In 1919, the Mauritius Sugar Syndicate came into being, whichincluded 70% of all sugar producers. [50]

1920–1939: Liberalization andreaction [ edit ]

The 1920s saw the rise of a "retrocessionism"movement, which favoured the retrocession of Mauritius to France. The movementrapidly collapsed because none of the candidates who wanted Mauritius to begiven back to France were elected in the 1921 elections.

In the post-war recession, there was a sharp drop in sugarprices. Many sugar estates closed down, marking the end of an era for the sugarmagnates who had not only controlled the economy but also the political life ofthe country.

Raoul Rivet, the editor of Le Mauricien  newspaper,campaigned for a revision of the constitution that would give the emergingmiddle class a greater role in the running of the country. The principlesof  AryaSamaj  began to infiltrate the Hindu community, who clamoured formore social justice. [48]

From the end of nominated Arlanda's term in 1891, until 1926,there had been no Indo-Mauritian representation in the Legislative Council.However, at the 1926 elections, Dunputh Lallah and Rajcoomar Gujadhur becamethe first  Indo-Mauritians  tobe elected at the Legislative Council. At Grand Port, Lallah won over rivalsFernand Louis Morel and Gaston Gebert; at Flacq, Gujadhur defeated PierreMontocchio. [51]

1936 saw the birth of the Labour Party ,launched by  MauriceCuré .  EmmanuelAnquetil  rallied the urban workers while Pandit Sahadeoconcentrated on the rural working class. [52]

The  Uba riotsof 1937  resulted in reforms by the local British government thatimproved labour conditions and led to the un-banning of labour unions. [53] [54]  LabourDay was celebrated for the first time in 1938. More than 30,000 workerssacrificed a day's wage and came from all over the island to attend a giantmeeting at the Champ de Mars. [55]

Following the dockers' strikes, trade unionist  EmmanuelAnquetil  was deported to Rodrigues,  MauriceCuré  and Pandit Sahadeo were placed under house arrest, whilstnumerous strikers were jailed. Governor Sir  BedeClifford  assisted Mr Jules Leclezio of the Mauritius SugarSyndicate to counter the effects of the strike by using alternative workersknown as 'black legs'. [56]

1939–1945: World War II [ edit ]

At the outbreak of  World War II  in 1939, many Mauritiansvolunteered to serve under the British flag in Africa and the Near East,fighting against the German and Italian armies. Some went to England to becomepilots and ground staff in the  Royal Air Force . Mauritius was never reallythreatened, but in 1943 several British ships were sunk outside Port Louis byGerman submarines.

During World War II, conditions were hard in the country; theprices of commodities doubled but workers' salaries increased only by 10 to 20percent. There was civil unrest, and the colonial government censored all tradeunion activities. However, the labourers of Belle Vue Harel Sugar Estate wenton strike on 27 September 1943. [57]  Policeofficers eventually fired directly at the crowd, resulting in the deaths of 4labourers: Soondrum Pavatdan (better known as Anjalay Coopen, a 32-year-oldpregnant woman), Moonsamy Moonien (14-year-old boy), Kistnasamy Mooneesamy(37-year-old labourer), and Marday Panapen. [58]  Thisbecame known as the  Belle Vue Harel Massacre . [59] [60]  Socialworker and leader of the Jan Andolan movement  Basdeo Bissoondoyal  organised thefuneral ceremonies of the 4 dead labourers. [61]

Three months later, on December 12, 1943,  Basdeo Bissoondoyal  organised a massgathering at "Marie Reine de la Paix" in Port Louis, and thesignificant crowd of workers from all over the island confirmed the popularityof his movement Jan Andolan. [62]

1945–1960: Postwar politics,universal suffrage [ edit ]

After the proclamation of the new 1947 Constitution the generalelections were held on August 9, 1948 — and, for the first time, the colonialgovernment expanded the franchise to all adults who could write their name inone of the island's 19 languages, abolishing the previous gender and propertyqualifications. [63] [64]

GuyRozemont 's Labour Party  wonthe majority of the votes [65]  with11 of the 19 elected seats won by  Hindus . However, the  Governor-General   Donald Mackenzie-Kennedy  appointed12 Conservatives to the Legislative Council on 23 August 1948 to perpetuate thepredominance of white  Franco-Mauritians . [66] [63]  In1948 Emilienne Rochecouste  becamethe first woman to be elected to the Legislative Council, serving until 1953. [67]

Guy Rozemont's party bettered its position in 1953, and, on thestrength of the election results, demanded  universal suffrage . Constitutional conferences wereheld in London in 1955 and 1957, and the ministerial system was introduced.Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrageon 9 March 1959. The general election was again won by the Labour Party, ledthis time by  Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam . [68]

1960–1968: Ethnic tensions [ edit ]

A Constitutional Review Conference was held in London in 1961,and a programme of further constitutional advance was established. The 1963election was won by the Labour Party and its allies. The  ColonialOffice  noted that politics of a communal nature was gainingground in Mauritius and that the choice of candidates (by parties) and thevoting behaviour (of electors) were governed by ethnic and casteconsiderations. [68]  Aroundthat time, two eminent British academics,  RichardTitmuss  and  James Meade , published a report of theisland's social problems caused by overpopulation and the monoculture of sugarcane. This led to an intense campaign to halt the population explosion, and thedecade registered a sharp decline in population growth.

In early 1965, a political assassination took place in thesuburb of Belle-Rose, in the town of Quatre Bornes, where Labour activistRampersad Surath was beaten to death by thugs of rival party Parti Mauricien. [69] [70]

On 10 May 1965,  racial riots  brokeout in the village of Trois Boutiques  near Souillac  andprogressed to the historic village of Mahébourg . A nationwide State of Emergency wasdeclared on the British colony. The riot was initiated by the murder of PoliceConstable Beesoo in his vehicle by a Creole gang. This was followed by themurder of a civilian named Mr. Robert Brousse in Trois Boutiques. [71]  TheCreole gang then proceeded to the coastal historic village of Mahébourg toassault the Indo-Mauritian spectators who were watching a Hindustani movie atCinéma Odéon. Mahébourg police recorded nearly 100 complaints of assaults onIndo-Mauritians. [72]

Independence (since 1968) [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Mauritius (1968–1992)

At the Lancaster Conference of 1965, it became clear thatBritain wanted to relieve itself of the colony of Mauritius. In 1959,  HaroldMacmillan  had made his famous " Wind of Change Speech " in which heacknowledged that the best option for Britain was to give complete independenceto its colonies. Thus, since the late Fifties, the way was paved forindependence. [73]

Later in 1965, after the Lancaster Conference, the Chagos Archipelago  wasexcised from the territory of Mauritius to form the  British Indian OceanTerritory  (BIOT). A general election took place on 7 August 1967,and the  Independence Party  obtainedthe majority of seats. In January 1968, six weeks before the declaration ofindependence the  1968 Mauritian riots  occurred in PortLouis leading to the deaths of 25 people. [74] [75]

Mauritius adopted a new constitution, and independence wasproclaimed on 12 March 1968. Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam became the first primeminister of an independent Mauritius — with  Queen Elizabeth II  remaining head of state asQueen of Mauritius. In 1969, the opposition party,  Mauritian Militant Movement  (MMM),was founded, led by  PaulBérenger . Later, in 1971, the MMM — backed by unions — called a seriesof strikes in the port, which caused a state of emergency in the country. [76]

The coalition government of the Labour Party and the PMSD (PartiMauricien Social Démocrate) reacted by curtailing civil liberties and curbingfreedom of the press. [48]  Twounsuccessful apparent assassination attempts were made against Paul Bérenger:

·        On October 1, 1971, his supporter Fareed Muttur died insuspicious circumstances at Le Réduit, whilst driving Paul Bérenger's car. [77]

·        The second led to the death of Azor Adélaïde , a dock worker and activist, on25 November 1971. [78]

General elections were postponed and public meetings were prohibited.Members of the MMM, including Paul Bérenger, were imprisoned on December 23,1971. The MMM leader was released a year later. [79]

In May 1975, a student revolt that started at the  University of Mauritius  swept across thecountry. [80]  Thestudents were unsatisfied with an education system that did not meet theiraspirations, and that gave limited prospects for future employment. On 20 May,thousands of students tried to enter Port-Louis over the Grand River North Westbridge, and clashed with police. An act of Parliament was passed on 16 December1975 to extend the right to vote to 18-year-olds. This was seen as an attemptto appease the frustration of the younger generation. [43]

The next general elections took place on  20 December 1976 . TheLabour-CAM coalition won only 28 seats out of 62. [81]  TheMMM secured 34 seats in Parliament but outgoing Prime Minister Sir SeewoosagurRamgoolam managed to remain in office, with a two-seat majority, after strikingan alliance with the PMSD of Gaetan Duval.

In 1982 an  MMM - PSM  government (led by  PM   AneroodJugnauth ,  Deputy PM   HarishBoodhoo  and Finance Minister  PaulBérenger ) was elected. However, ideological and personality differencesemerged within the MMM and PSM leadership. The power struggle between Bérengerand Jugnauth peaked in March 1983. Jugnauth travelled to New Delhi to attenda  Non-Aligned Movement  summit; on hisreturn, Bérenger proposed constitutional changes that would strip power fromthe Prime Minister. At Jugnauth's request, PM  IndiraGandhi  of India planned an armed intervention involving the  IndianNavy  and  Indian Army  to prevent a  coup  underthe code name  Operation Lal Dora . [82] [83] [84]

The  MMM - PSM  government split up ninemonths after the June 1982 election. According to an Information Ministryofficial the nine months was a "socialist experiment". [85]   HarishBoodhoo  dissolved his party  PSM  to enable all PSMparliamentarians to join Jugnauth's new party MSM, thus remaining in powerwhilst distancing themselves from  MMM . [86]  TheMSM-Labour-PMSD coalition was victorious at the  August 1983  elections,resulting in  AneroodJugnauth  as PM and Gaëtan Duval  as  Deputy PM .

That period saw growth in the EPZ (Export Processing Zone)sector. Industrialisation began to spread to villages as well, and attractedyoung workers from all ethnic communities. As a result, the sugar industrybegan to lose its hold on the economy. Large retail chains began opening storesin 1985 and offered credit facilities to low-income earners, thus allowing themto afford basic household appliances. There was also a boom in the tourismindustry, and new hotels sprang up throughout the island. In 1989 the stockexchange opened its doors and in 1992 the freeport began operation. [48]  In1990, the  Prime Minister  lostthe vote on changing the Constitution to make the country a republic withBérenger as president. [87]

Republic (since 1992) [ edit ]

On 12 March 1992, twenty-four years after independence,Mauritius was proclaimed a republic within the  Commonwealth of Nations . [29]  Thelast governor general,  Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo , became the first  president . [88]  Thiswas under a transitional arrangement, in which he was replaced by Cassam Uteem  later that year. [89]  Politicalpower remained with the prime minister.

Despite an improvement in the economy, which coincided with afall in the price of petrol and a favourable dollar exchange rate, thegovernment did not enjoy full popularity. As early as 1984, there wasdiscontent. Through the Newspapers and Periodicals Amendment Act ,the government tried to make every newspaper provide a bank guarantee of half amillion rupees. Forty-three journalists protested by participating in a publicdemonstration in Port Louis, in front of Parliament. They were arrested andfreed on bail. This caused a public outcry and the government had to review itspolicy. [48]

There was also dissatisfaction in the education sector. Therewere not enough high-quality secondary colleges to answer the growing demand ofprimary school leavers who had got through their CPE (Certificate of PrimaryEducation). In 1991, a master plan for education failed to get national supportand contributed to the government's downfall. [48]

In December 1995 Navin Ramgoolam  was elected as  PM  ofthe Labour–MMM alliance. In October 1996 the triple murder of politicalactivists at Gorah-Issac Street in Port Louis led to several arrests and a longinvestigation. [90]

The year 1999 was marked by civil unrest and riots in  February  and then in  May . Following the Kaya riots President Cassam Uteem  and Cardinal  JeanMargéot  toured the country and calm was restored after four daysof turmoil. [91]  Acommission of enquiry was set up to investigate the root causes of the socialdisturbance. The resulting report delved into the cause of poverty andqualified many tenacious beliefs as perceptions. [92]  InJanuary 2000 political activist Rajen Sabapathee was shot dead after he escapedfrom La Bastille jail. [93]

.

Anerood Jugnauth of the MSM returned to power in September 2000after securing an alliance with the MMM. In 2002, the island of  Rodrigues  becamean autonomous entity within the republic and was thus able to elect its ownrepresentatives to administer the island. In 2003, the  prime ministership  wastransferred to Paul Bérenger of the MMM, and Anerood Jugnauth became president.Bérenger was the first Franco-Mauritian Prime Minister in the country'spost-Independence history.

In  2005 elections , NavinRamgoolam became PM under the new coalition of Labour–PMXD–VF–MR–MMSM. In  2010 elections  theLabour–MSM–PMSD alliance secured power and Navin Ramgoolam remained PM until2014. [94]

The MSM–PMSD–ML coalition was victorious at the  2014 elections  underAnerood Jugnauth's leadership. Despite disagreements within the ruling alliancethat led to the departure of PMSD, the MSM–ML stayed in power for their full5-year term. [95]

On 21 January 2017 Anerood Jugnauth announced his resignationand that his son and Finance Minister  PravindJugnauth  would assume the office of prime minister. [96]  Thetransition took place as planned on 23 January 2017. [97]

In 2018, Mauritian president Ameenah Gurib-Fakim  resignedover a financial scandal. [98]  Theincumbent president is Prithvirajsing Roopun [99]  whohas served since December 2019.

In the November 2019  Mauritius general elections , theruling  Militant Socialist Movement  (MSM)won more than half of the seats in parliament, securing incumbent PrimeMinister  PravindKumar Jugnauth  a new five-year term. [100]

On 25 July 2020, Japanese-owned bulk carrier MV Wakashio ranaground on a coral reef off the coast of Mauritius, leaking up to 1,000 tonnesof heavy oil into a pristine lagoon. [101]  Itslocation on the edge of protected fragile marine ecosystems and a wetland ofinternational importance made the  MV Wakashio  oil spill  oneof the worst  environmental disasters  ever to hit thewestern Indian Ocean. [102]

Geography [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Geography of Mauritius

The total land area of the country is 2,040 km2 (790 sq mi).It is the  170thlargest nation  in the world by size. The Republic of Mauritius comprisesMauritius Island and  several outlying islands . Thenation's  exclusive economic zone  covers about2.3 million km2 (890,000 sq mi) of theIndian Ocean, including approximately 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi)jointly managed with the  Seychelles . [103] [104] [105]

Mauritius Island [ edit ]

Mauritius is 2,000 km (1,200 mi) off the southeastcoast of Africa, between latitudes  19°58.8'S  and  20°31.7'S  and longitudes  57°18.0'E  and  57°46.5'E . It is 65 km (40 mi)long and 45 km (30 mi) wide. Its land area is 1,864.8 km2 (720.0 sq mi). [106] [107]  Theisland is surrounded by more than 150 km (100 mi) of white sandybeaches, and the lagoons are protected from the open sea by the world'sthird-largest coral reef, which surrounds the island. [108]  Justoff the Mauritian coast lie some 49 uninhabited islands and  islets , several of which have beendeclared natural reserves for endangered species.

Mauritius Island ( MauritianCreole : Isle Moris ;  French :  Île Maurice , pronounced  [il mɔʁis] ) isrelatively young geologically, having been created by volcanic activity some 8million years ago. Together with Saint Brandon, Réunion, and Rodrigues, theisland is part of the  MascareneIslands . These islands emerged as a result of gigantic underwatervolcanic eruptions that happened thousands of kilometres to the east of thecontinental block made up of Africa and Madagascar. [109]  Theyare no longer volcanically active and the  hotspot  now rests under RéunionIsland. Mauritius is encircled by a broken ring of mountain ranges, varying inheight from 300 to 800 metres (1,000 to 2,600 ft) above sea level. Theland rises from coastal plains to a central plateau where it reaches a heightof 670 m (2,200 ft); the highest peak is in the south-west,  Piton de la Petite RivièreNoire  at 828 metres (2,717 ft). Streams and rivers specklethe island, many formed in the cracks created by lava flows.

Rodrigues Island [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Rodrigues

The autonomous island of  Rodrigues  is located 560 km(350 mi) to the east of Mauritius, with an area 108 km2 (42 sq mi). [109]  Rodriguesis a  volcanicisland  rising from a ridge along the edge of the  MascarenePlateau . The island is hilly with a central spine culminating in thehighest peak, Mountain Limon at 398 m (1,306 ft). The island also hasa  coralreef  and extensive  limestone  deposits. According toStatistics Mauritius, at 1 July 2019, the population of the island was estimatedat 43,371. [110]

Chagos Archipelago [ edit ]

Mainarticle: Chagos Archipelago

The Chagos Archipelago is composed of atolls and islands, and islocated approximately 2,200 kilometres north-east of the main island ofMauritius. To the north of the Chagos Archipelago are Peros Banhos , the  SalomonIslands  and  Nelsons Island ; to the south-west are  The Three Brothers ,  EagleIslands ,  EgmontIslands  and  Danger Island .  DiegoGarcia  is in the south-east of the archipelago. [15]  In2016, the Chagossian population was estimated at 8,700 in Mauritius, including483 natives; 350 Chagossians live in the Seychelles, including 75 natives,while 3,000, including 127 natives, live in the UK (the population having grownfrom the 1200 Chagossians who moved there). [111]

St. Brandon [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  St. Brandon

St.Brandon , also known as Cargados Carajos Shoals, is located 402kilometres (250 mi) northeast of Mauritius Island. The archipelagoconsists of 16 Islands and Islets. Saint Brandon consists of five islandgroups, with about 28–40 islands and islets in total, depending on seasonalstorms and related sand movements.

Agaléga Islands [ edit ]

Mainarticle: Agaléga

The twin islands of Agaléga  are located some 1,000 kilometres (600miles) to the north of Mauritius. [109]  ItsNorth Island is 12.5 km (7 + 3 ⁄ 4  mi) longand 1.5 km (7 ⁄ 8  mi) wide, while its South Island is 7by 4.5 km (4 + 1 ⁄ 4  by 2 + 3 ⁄ 4  mi). The total areaof both islands is 26 km2 (10 sq mi). Accordingto Statistics Mauritius, at 1 July 2019, the population of Agaléga and St.Brandon was estimated at 274. [110]

Tromelin [ edit ]

Mainarticle: Tromelin Island

Tromelin island lies 430 km north-west of Mauritius.Mauritius claims sovereignty over Tromelin island , it is registered as a part ofFrance.

The French took control of Mauritius in 1715, renaming it  Isle de France . Franceofficially ceded Mauritius including all its dependencies to Britain throughthe  Treaty of Paris , signed on 30 May 1814 and inwhich  Réunion  wasreturned to France. The  British Colony of Mauritius  consistedof the main island of Mauritius along with its dependencies  Rodrigues , Agaléga ,  St. Brandon , Tromelin (disputed) andthe Chagos Archipelago ,while the  Seychelles  becamea separate colony in 1906. It is disputed whether the transfer of Isle deFrance (as Mauritius was previously known under French rule) and itsdependencies to Britain in 1814 included Tromelin island. Article 8 of theTreaty of Paris stipulate the cession by France to Britain of Isle de France"and its dependencies, namely Rodrigues and the Seychelles". Franceconsiders that the sovereignty of Tromelin island was never transferred toBritain. Mauritius's claim is based on the fact that the transfer of Isle deFrance and its dependencies to Britain in 1814 was general in nature, that itwas beyond those called out in the Treaty of Paris, and that all thedependencies of Isle de France were not specifically mentioned in the Treaty.Mauritius's claim is that since Tromelin was a dependency of Isle de France, itwas 'de facto' transferred to Britain in 1814. The islands of Agaléga, StBrandon and the Chagos Archipelago were also not specifically mentioned in theTreaty of Paris but became part of the British Colony of Mauritius as they weredependencies of Isle de France at that time. In addition, the Britishauthorities in Mauritius have been taking administrative measures with respectto Tromelin over the years; for instance, British officials granted four guanooperating concessions on Tromelin island between 1901 and 1951. [16]  In1959, British officials in Mauritius informed the  World MeteorologicalOrganization  that it considered Tromelin to be part of its territory. [112]  Aco-management treaty was reached by France and Mauritius in 2010 but has notbeen ratified. [113]

Territorial disputes [ edit ]

Chagos Archipelago [ edit ]

Mainarticles: ChagosArchipelago sovereignty dispute  and  Expulsion of theChagossians

Mauritius has long sought sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago ,located 1,287 km (800 mi) to the north-east. Chagos wasadministratively part of Mauritius from the 18th century when the French firstsettled the islands. All of the islands forming part of the French colonialterritory of  Isle de France  (asMauritius was then known) were ceded to the British in 1810 under the Act ofCapitulation signed between the two powers. [114]  In1965, three years before the independence of Mauritius, the United Kingdomsplit the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius and the islands of  Aldabra ,  Farquhar  and Desroches  from the  Seychelles  to formthe  British Indian OceanTerritory  (BIOT). The islands were formally established as anoverseas territory of the United Kingdom on 8 November 1965. On 23 June 1976,Aldabra, Farquhar and Desroches were returned to  Seychelles  asa result of its attaining independence. The BIOT now comprises the ChagosArchipelago only. The UK leased the main island of the archipelago,  DiegoGarcia , to the United States under a 50-year lease to establish amilitary base. [114] [115]  In2016, Britain extended the lease to the US till 2036. [116]  Mauritiushas repeatedly asserted that the separation of its territories is a violationof United Nations resolutions banning the dismemberment of colonial territoriesbefore independence and claims that the Chagos Archipelago, including DiegoGarcia, forms an integral part of the territory of Mauritius under bothMauritian law and international law. [117]  Afterinitially denying that the islands were inhabited, British officials forciblyexpelled to the mainland approximately 2,000 Chagossians  who had lived on those islands for acentury. To force the inhabitants to leave, first the British authorities cutoff food supplies, and those who resisted were threatened with being shot orbombed if they did not leave the island. To frighten them, their dogs and petswere gassed to death. [118]  Atthe  UnitedNations  and in statements to its Parliament, the UK stated that therewas no "permanent population" in the Chagos Archipelago and describedthe population as "contract labourers" who were relocated. [10]  Since1971, only the atoll of Diego Garcia is inhabited, home to some 3,000 UK and USmilitary and civilian contracted personnel. Chagossians have since engaged inactivism to return to the archipelago, claiming that their forced expulsion anddispossession were illegal. [119] [120]

Section 111 of the  Constitution of Mauritius  statesthat "Mauritius" includes [121]  –

(a) the Islands of Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agaléga, Tromelin,Cargados Carajos and the Chagos Archipelago, including Diego Garcia and anyother island comprised in the State of Mauritius;

(b) the territorial sea and the air space above the territorialsea and the islands specified in paragraph (a);

(c) the continental shelf; and

(d) such places or areas as may be designated by regulationsmade by the Prime Minister, rights over which are or may become exercisable byMauritius.

Mauritius considers the territorial sea of the ChagosArchipelago and Tromelin island as part of its  exclusive economic zone . [12]

Permanent Court of Arbitration [ edit ]

On 20 December 2010, Mauritius initiated proceedings against theUnited Kingdom under the  United Nations Conventionon the Law of the Sea  (UNCLOS) to challenge thelegality of the Chagos Marine ProtectedArea  (MPA), which the UK purported to declare around the ChagosArchipelago in April 2010. The dispute was arbitrated by the  Permanent Court ofArbitration .

The sovereignty of Mauritius was explicitly recognized by two ofthe arbitrators and denied by none of the other three. Three members of theTribunal found that they did not have jurisdiction to rule on that question;they expressed no view as to which of the two States has sovereignty over theChagos Archipelago. Tribunal Judges Rüdiger Wolfrum  andJames Kateka held that the Tribunal did have jurisdiction to decide thisquestion, and concluded that UK does not have sovereignty over the ChagosArchipelago. They found that: [122]

·        internal United Kingdom documents suggested an ulterior motivebehind the MPA, noting disturbing similarities and a common pattern between theestablishment of the so-called "BIOT" in 1965 and the proclamation ofthe MPA in 2010;

·        the excision of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965shows a complete disregard for the territorial integrity of Mauritius by theUK;

·        UK Prime Minister  Harold Wilson 's threat to Premier Sir  Seewoosagur Ramgoolam  in 1965 that hecould return home without independence if he did not consent to the excision ofthe Chagos Archipelago amounted to duress; Mauritian Ministers were coercedinto agreeing to the detachment of the Chagos Archipelago, which violated theinternational law of self-determination;

·        the MPA is legally invalid.

The Tribunal's decision determined that the UK's undertaking toreturn the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius gives Mauritius an interest insignificant decisions that bear upon possible future uses of the archipelago.The result of the Tribunal's decision is that it is now open to the Parties toenter into the negotiations that the Tribunal would have expected prior to theproclamation of the MPA, with a view to achieving a mutually satisfactoryarrangement for protecting the marine environment, to the extent necessaryunder a "sovereignty umbrella". [123]

International Court of Justice [ edit ]

Amendment of exclusion clause by UK [ edit ]

In 2004, following the decision of the British government topromulgate the British Indian Ocean Territory Order, which prohibited the Chagossians  from remaining on the islandswithout express authorisation, Mauritius contemplated recourse to the  International Court ofJustice  to finally and conclusively settle the dispute. However,article 36 of the International Court of Justice Statute provides that it isthe option of the state whether it wishes to subject itself to the court'sjurisdiction. Where the state chooses to be so bound, it may also restrict orlimit the jurisdiction of the court in a number of ways. The UK's clausedeposited at the court excluded, amongst other things, the jurisdiction of thecourt with regard "to any disputes with the government of any countrywhich is a member of the Commonwealth with regard to situations or facts existingbefore 1 January 1969". The temporal limitation of 1 January 1969 wasinserted to exclude all disputes arising during decolonisation. The effect ofthe British exclusionary clause would thus have prevented Mauritius fromresorting to the court on the Chagos dispute because it is a member ofthe  Commonwealth . When Mauritius threatened toleave the Commonwealth, the United Kingdom quickly amended its exclusion clauseto exclude any disputes between itself, Commonwealth States and formerCommonwealth States , thereby quashing any Mauritian hopes to ever haverecourse to the contentious jurisdiction of the court, even if it left. [124]

Advisory opinion [ edit ]

On 22 June 2017, by a margin of 94 to 15 countries, the  UN General Assembly  asked the  International Court of Justice  togive an advisory opinion on the separation of the Chagos Archipelago fromMauritius before the country's independence in the 1960s. In September 2018,the International Court of Justice began hearings on the case. 17 countrieshave argued in favour of Mauritius. [125] [126]  TheUK apologised for the "shameful" way islanders were evicted from theChagos Archipelago but were insistent that Mauritius was wrong to bring thedispute over sovereignty of the strategic atoll group to the United Nations'highest court. [127]  TheUK and its allies argued that this matter should not be decided by the courtbut should be resolved through bilateral negotiations, while bilateraldiscussions with Mauritius have been unfruitful over the past 50 years.

On 25 February 2019, the judges of the International Court ofJustice by thirteen votes to one stated that the United Kingdom is under anobligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos Archipelago asrapidly as possible. Only the American judge,  JoanDonoghue , voted in favor of the UK. The president of the court, Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf ,said the detachment of the Chagos Archipelago in 1965 from Mauritius had notbeen based on a "free and genuine expression of the peopleconcerned". "This continued administration constitutes a wrongfulact", he said, adding "The UK has an obligation to bring to an endits administration of the Chagos Archipelago as rapidly as possible and thatall member states must co-operate with the United Nations to complete thedecolonization of Mauritius." [128]

On 1 May 2019, the UK Foreign Office minister  AlanDuncan  stated that Mauritius has never held sovereignty over thearchipelago and the UK does not recognise its claim. He stated that the rulingwas merely an advisory opinion and not a legally binding judgment.  JeremyCorbyn , leader of the UK's main opposition party, wrote to the UK PMcondemning her decision to defy a ruling of the UN's principal court thatconcluded that Britain should hand back the Chagos Islands to Mauritius. Heexpressed his concern that the UK government appears ready to disregard  internationallaw  and ignore a ruling of the international court and theright of the Chagossians to return to their homes. [129]

On 22 May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly debated andadopted a resolution that affirmed that the Chagos Archipelago, which has beenoccupied by the UK for more than 50 years, "forms an integral part of theterritory of Mauritius". The resolution gives effect to an advisory opinionof the International Court of Justice (ICJ), demanded that the UK"withdraw its colonial administration ... unconditionally within a periodof no more than six months". 116 states voted in favour of the resolution,55 abstained and only Australia, Hungary, Israel and Maldives supported the UKand US. During the debate, the Mauritian Prime Minister described the expulsionof Chagossians as "a  crime against humanity ". [130]  Whilethe resolution is not legally binding, it carries significant political weightsince the ruling came from the UN's highest court and the assembly votereflects world opinion. [131]  Theresolution also has immediate practical consequences: the UN, its specialisedagencies, and all other international organisations are now bound, as a matterof UN law, to support the decolonisation of Mauritius even if the UK claim thatit has no doubt about its sovereignty. [130]

Environment [ edit ]

Biodiversity [ edit ]

The country is home to some of the world's rarest plants andanimals, but human habitation and the introduction of  non-native species  have threatened itsindigenous flora and fauna. [119]  Dueto its volcanic origin, age, isolation, and unique terrain, Mauritius is hometo a diversity of flora and fauna not usually found in such a small area.Before the Portuguese arrival in 1507, there were no terrestrial mammals on theisland. This allowed the evolution of a number of flightless birds and largereptile species. The arrival of humans saw the introduction of invasive alienspecies, the rapid destruction of habitat and the loss of much of the endemicflora and fauna. In particular, the  extinction  of the flightless  dodo  bird,a species unique to Maurtitius, has become a representative example ofhuman-driven extinction. [132] [133] [134]  Thedodo is prominently featured as a (heraldic)  supporter  ofthe national  coat of arms of Mauritius . [135]

Less than 2% of the  native forest  now remains, concentratedin the  Black River Gorges NationalPark  in the south-west, the Bambous Mountain Range in thesouth-east, and the Moka-Port Louis Ranges in the north-west. There are someisolated mountains,  Corps deGarde ,  Le MorneBrabant , and several  offshore islands , with remnants of coastal andmainland diversity. Over 100 species of plants and animals have become extinctand many more are threatened. Conservation activities began in the 1980s withthe implementation of programmes for the reproduction of threatened bird andplant species as well as habitat restoration in the national parks and naturereserves. [136]

In 2011, the Ministry of Environment & SustainableDevelopment issued the "Mauritius Environment Outlook Report," whichrecommended that St Brandon be declared a Marine Protected Area. In thePresident's Report of the  Mauritian Wildlife Foundation  datedMarch 2016, St Brandon is declared an official MWF project in order to promotethe conservation of the atoll. [137]

The  Mauritian Flying Fox  is the onlyremaining mammal endemic to the island, and has been severely threatened inrecent years due to the government sanctioned culling introduced in November2015 due to the belief that they were a threat to fruit plantations. Prior to2015 the lack of severe cyclone had seen the fruit bat population increase and thestatus of the species was then changed by the  IUCN  fromEndangered to Vulnerable in 2014. October 2018, saw the authorisation of thecull of 20% of the fruit bat population, amounting to 13,000 of the estimated65,000 fruit bats remaining, although their status had already reverted toEndangered due to the previous years' culls. [138]

 

Environment and climate [ edit ]

The environment in Mauritius is typically tropical in thecoastal regions with forests in the mountainous areas. Seasonal cyclones aredestructive to its flora and fauna, although they recover quickly. Mauritiusranked second in an  airquality index  released by the  World Health Organization  in2011. [139]  Ithad a 2019  Forest Landscape IntegrityIndex  mean score of 5.46/10, ranking it 100th globally out of172 countries. [140]

Situated near the  Tropic of Capricorn , Mauritius has a  tropicalclimate . There are 2 seasons: a warm humid summer from November toApril, with a mean temperature of 24.7 °C (76.5 °F) and a relativelycool dry winter from June to September with a mean temperature of 20.4 °C(68.7 °F). The temperature difference between the seasons is only 4.3  °C (7.7  °F). Thewarmest months are January and February with average day maximum temperaturereaching 29.2 °C (84.6 °F) and the coolest months are July and Augustwith average overnight minimum temperatures of 16.4 °C (61.5 °F).Annual rainfall ranges from 900 mm (35 in) on the coast to1,500 mm (59 in) on the central plateau. Although there is no markedrainy season, most of the rainfall occurs in the summer months. Sea temperaturein the lagoon varies from 22–27 °C (72–81 °F). The central plateau ismuch cooler than the surrounding  coastal  areas and can experience asmuch as twice the rainfall. The prevailing trade winds keep the east side ofthe island cooler and bring more rain. Occasional  tropicalcyclones  generally occur between January and March and tend todisrupt the weather for about three days, bringing heavy rain. [141]

Prime Minister  Pravind Jugnauth  declared an environmentalstate of emergency after the 25 July  2020   MV Wakashio  oil spill . [142]  Francesent aircraft and specialists from  Réunion  and  Greenpeace  saidthat the leak threatened the survival of thousands of species, who are at"risk of drowning in a sea of pollution". [143]

Government and politics [ edit ]

The politics of Mauritius take place in a framework of a  parliamentary   representative democratic  republic,in which the  President  is the  head ofstate  and the  Prime Minister  isthe  head of government , assisted by a  Council of Ministers .Mauritius has a  multi-party system .  Executivepower  is exercised by the Government.  Legislativepower  is vested in both the Government and the  National Assembly .

The National Assembly is Mauritius's  unicameral  legislature,which was called the Legislative Assembly until 1992, when the country became arepublic. It consists of 70 members, 62 elected for four-year terms inmulti-member  constituencies  andeight additional members, known as "best losers", appointed by theElectoral Service Commission to ensure that ethnic and religious minorities areequitably represented. The UN Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), which monitorsmember states' compliance with the International Covenant on Political andCivil Rights (ICPCR), has criticised the country's Best Loser System followinga complaint by a local youth and trade union movement. [144]  Thepresident is elected for a five-year term by the Parliament.

The island of Mauritius is divided into  20 constituencies  thatreturn three members each. The island of Rodrigues is a single district thatreturns two members.

After a general election, the Electoral Supervisory Commissionmay nominate up to eight additional members with a view to correct anyimbalance in the representation of ethnic minorities in Parliament. This systemof nominating members is commonly called the best loser system.

The political party or party alliance that wins the majority ofseats in Parliament forms the government. Its leader becomes the PrimeMinister, who selects the Cabinet from elected members of the Assembly, exceptfor the Attorney General, who may not be an elected member of the Assembly. Thepolitical party or alliance which has the second largest group ofrepresentatives forms the Official Opposition and its leader is normallynominated by the President of the Republic as the Leader of the Opposition. TheAssembly elects a Speaker, a Deputy Speaker and a Deputy Chairman of Committeesas some of its first tasks.

Mauritius is a democracy with a government elected every fiveyears. The most recent National Assembly Election was held on the 7th ofNovember 2019 in all the 20 mainland constituencies, and in the constituencycovering the island of Rodrigues. Elections have tended to be a contest betweentwo major coalitions of parties.

The 2018  Ibrahim Index of AfricanGovernance  ranked Mauritius first in good governance. [145]  Accordingto the 2017  DemocracyIndex  compiled by the  Economist Intelligence Unit  thatmeasures the state of democracy in 167 countries, Mauritius ranks 16thworldwide and is the only African-related country with "fulldemocracy". [146] Administrative subdivisions [ edit ]

 

Mainarticles:  Outer Islands of Mauritius  and  Districts of Mauritius

Mauritius has a single first-order administrative division,the  Outer Islands of Mauritius  ( French :  Îles éparses de Maurice ), which consists of theislands of Mauritius and several outlying islands. [149]  Theisland of Mauritius is subdivided into  nine districts , which are the country'ssecond-order administrative divisions.

Military [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Military of Mauritius

All military, police, and security functions in Mauritius arecarried out by 10,000 active-duty personnel under the Commissioner of Police.The 8,000-member National Police Force is responsible for domestic lawenforcement. The 1,400-member  Special Mobile Force  (SMF) and the688-member National Coast Guard are the only two paramilitary units inMauritius. Both units are composed of police officers on lengthy rotations tothose services. Mauritius has also a special operations military known as'GIPM' that would intervene in any terrorist attack or high risk operations. [150]

Foreign relations [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Foreignrelations of Mauritius

Mauritius has strong and friendly relations with variousAfrican, American, Asian, European and Oceania countries. Considered part ofAfrica geographically, Mauritius has friendly relations with African states inthe region, particularly South Africa, by far its largest continental tradingpartner. Mauritian investors are gradually entering African markets, notablyMadagascar, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The country's political heritage anddependence on Western markets have led to close ties with the  European Union  andits member states, particularly France. Relations with India are very strongfor both historical and commercial reasons. Mauritius established diplomaticrelations with China in April 1972 and was forced to defend this decision,along with naval contracts with the USSR in the same year. It has also beenextending its Middle East outreach with the setting up of an embassy in SaudiArabia [151]  whoseAmbassador also doubles as the country's ambassador to Bahrain. [152]

Mauritius is a member of the  UnitedNations , the  World Trade Organization ,the  AfricanUnion , the  Commonwealth of Nations ,  LaFrancophonie , the  Southern Africa DevelopmentCommunity , the  Indian Ocean Commission , the  Common Market for Easternand Southern Africa , and the  Indian Ocean Rim Association .

Legal system [ edit ]

Mauritius has a hybrid legal system derived from  British common law  and the  Frenchcivil law . The  Constitution of Mauritius  establishedthe  separation of powers  between the  legislature ,the  executive  and the  judiciary  andguaranteed the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual.Mauritius has a single-structured judicial system consisting of two tiers,the  Supreme Court  andsubordinate courts. The Supreme Court is composed of various divisionsexercising jurisdiction such as the Master's Court, the Family Division, theCommercial Division (Bankruptcy), the Criminal Division, the MediationDivision, the Court of First Instance in civil and criminal proceedings, theAppellate jurisdiction: the Court of Civil Appeal and the Court of CriminalAppeal. Subordinate courts consist of the Intermediate Court, the IndustrialCourt, the District Courts, the Bail and Remand Court and the Court of Rodrigues.The  Judicial Committee of thePrivy Council  is the final court of appeal of Mauritius. After theindependence of Mauritius in 1968, Mauritius maintained the Privy Council asits highest court of appeal. Appeals to the Judicial Committee from decisionsof the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court may be as of right or with theleave of the Court, as set out in section 81 of the Constitution and section70A of the Courts Act. The Judicial Committee may also grant special leave toappeal from the decision of any court in any civil or criminal matter as persection 81(5) of the Constitution. [153]

For more,see  Laws and regulations for electronic payment in Mauritius .

Demographics [ edit ]

The estimated population of the Republic of Mauritius was at1,265,985, of whom 626,341 were males and 639,644 females as at 1 July 2019.The population on the island of Mauritius was 1,222,340, and that of Rodriguesisland was 43,371; Agaléga and Saint Brandon had an estimated total populationof 274. [110]  Mauritiushas the second highest  population density  inAfrica. Subsequent to a Constitutional amendment in 1982, the census does notcompile data on ethnic identities anymore but still does on religiousaffiliation. The 1972 census was the last one to measure ethnicity. [154] [155]  Mauritiusis a  multiethnic  society,drawn from  Indian ,  African ,  Chinese  and European(mostly  French ) origin.

According to the  Constitution of Mauritius  thereare 4 distinct communities on the island for the purposes of representation inthe National Assembly. Schedule I, Paragraph 3(4) of the Constitution statesthat The population of Mauritius shall be regarded as including a Hinducommunity, a Muslim community, and a Sino-Mauritian community, and every personwho does not appear, from his way of life, to belong to one or other of thosethree communities shall be regarded as belonging to the General Population,which shall itself be regarded as a fourth community. [156]  Thuseach ethnic group in Mauritius falls within one of the four main communitiesknown as  Hindus ,  General Population ,  Muslims  and  Sino-Mauritians . [157] [158]

As per the above constitutional provision, the 1972 ethnicstatistics are used to implement the  BestLoser System , the method used in Mauritius since the 1950s to guaranteeethnic representation across the entire electorate in the  National Assembly  withoutorganising the representation wholly by ethnicity. [159]

Religion [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Religion in Mauritius

According to the 2011 census conducted by  Statistics Mauritius , 48.5% of the Mauritianpopulation follows  Hinduism ,followed by  Christianity  (32.7%),out of which 26.3% are  Catholic ,  Islam  (17.2%)and other religions (0.7%). 0.7% reported themselves as  non-religious  and0.1% did not answer. [160]  Theconstitution prohibits discrimination on religious grounds and provides forfreedom to practice, change one's religion or not have any. The  Roman Catholic Church ,  Church of England ,  Presbyterian Church ofMauritius , Seventh-day Adventists, Hindu Temples Associations and MuslimMosques Organisations enjoy tax-exemptions and are allocated financial supportbased on their respective share of the population. Other religious groups canregister and be tax-exempt but receive no financial support. [161]  Publicholidays of religious origins are the Hindu festivals of Maha Shivaratri , Ougadi , Thaipoosam Cavadee ,  GaneshChaturthi , and  Diwali ; theChristian festivals of  Assumption  and  Christmas ; and theMuslim festival of  Eidal-Fitr . [162]  Thestate actively participates in their organisation with special committees presidingover the pilgrimage to  GangaTalao  for Maha Shivaratri  and the annual CatholicProcession to  Jacques-Désiré Laval 's resting place at  Sainte-Croix . [163]

Languages [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Languages of Mauritius

The  Mauritian constitution  makesno mention of an  officiallanguage . The Constitution only mentions that the official language ofthe National Assembly is English; however, any member can also address thechair in French. [164]  Englishand French are generally considered to be de facto national and common languagesof Mauritius, as they are the languages of government administration, courts,and business. [165]  Theconstitution of Mauritius is written in English, while some laws, such asthe  Civilcode  and  Criminal code , are in French. The Mauritiancurrency features the  Latin ,  Tamil  and  Devanagari  scripts.

The Mauritian population is  multilingual ; while  MauritianCreole  is the  mother tongue  of most Mauritians, mostpeople are also fluent in English and French; they tend to switch languagesaccording to the situation. [166]  Frenchand English are favoured in educational and professional settings, while Asianlanguages are used mainly in music, religious and cultural activities. Themedia and literature are primarily in French.

The Creole language, which is  French-based  withsome additional influences, is spoken by the majority of the population as anative language. [167]  TheCreole languages which are spoken in different islands of the country are moreor less similar:  MauritianCreole , Rodriguan creole , Agalega creole  and Chagossian creole  are spoken by people from theislands of Mauritius,  Rodrigues , Agaléga  and Chagos . The following ancestral languages, alsospoken in Mauritius, have received official recognition by acts ofparliament :  Bhojpuri , [168]   Chinese , [169]   Hindi , [170]   Marathi , [171]   Tamil , [172]   Telugu [173]  and  Urdu . [174]   Bhojpuri , oncewidely spoken as a mother tongue, has become less commonly spoken over theyears. According to the 2011 census, Bhojpuri was spoken by 5% of thepopulation compared to 12% in 2000. [6]

School students must learn English and French; they may also optfor an Asian language or Mauritian Creole. The medium of instruction variesfrom school to school but is usually English for public and governmentsubsidised private schools and mainly French for paid private ones.  O-Level  and  A-Level  Examsare organised in public and government subsidised private schools in Englishby  Cambridge InternationalExaminations  while paid private schools mostly follow the  FrenchBaccalaureate  model.

Education [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Education in Mauritius

The education system in Mauritius consists of pre-primary,primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. The education structure consists oftwo to three years of pre-primary school, six years of primary schoolingleading to the Primary School Achievement Certificate, five years of secondaryeducation leading to the School Certificate, and two years of higher secondaryending with the Higher School Certificate. Secondary schools have"college" as part of their title. The government of Mauritiusprovides  freeeducation  to its citizens from pre-primary to tertiary level. In2013 government expenditure on education was estimated at about₨ 13,584 million, representing 13% of total expenditure. [175]  Asof January 2017, the government has introduced changes to the education systemwith the Nine-Year Continuous Basic Education programme, which abolished theCertificate of Primary Education (CPE). [176]

The  O-Level  and  A-Level  examinationsare carried out by the  University of Cambridge  through  Universityof Cambridge International Examinations  incollaboration with the  MES . Thetertiary education sector includes universities and other technicalinstitutions in Mauritius. The two main public universities are the  University of Mauritius  and the  University of Technology , inaddition to the Université des Mascareignes, founded in 2012, and the OpenUniversity Mauritius. These four public universities and several othertechnical institutes and higher education colleges are tuition-free forstudents as of 2019. [177]

The adult  literacy rate  was estimated at 92.7% in2015. [178]  Mauritiuswas ranked 52nd in the  Global Innovation Index  in 2021, 1st inAfrica. [179] [180] [181]

Economy [ edit ]

Since independence from Britain in 1968, Mauritius has developedfrom a low-income, agriculture-based economy to a  high-income  diversifiedeconomy, based on  tourism , textiles, sugar, and financialservices. The economic history of Mauritius since independence has been called"the Mauritian Miracle" and the "success of Africa" (Romer,1992; Frankel, 2010; Stiglitz, 2011). [182]

In recent years, information and communication technology,seafood, hospitality and property development, healthcare, renewable energy,and  education  and training have emergedas important sectors, attracting substantial investment from both local and foreigninvestors. [183]

Mauritius has no exploitable fossil fuel reserves and so relieson petroleum products to meet most of its energy requirements. Local andrenewable energy sources are biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy. [184]

Mauritius has one of the largest  exclusive economic zones  inthe world, and in 2012 the government announced its intention to develop themarine economy. [185]

Mauritius is ranked high in terms of economic competitiveness, afriendly investment climate, good governance and a free economy. [186] [187] [188]  TheGross Domestic Product (PPP) was estimated at US$29.187 billion in 2018,and  GDP (PPP) per capita  wasover US$22,909, the second highest in Africa. [186] [187] [188]

Mauritius has a  high-income economy ,according to the  WorldBank  in 2019. [22]  TheWorld Bank's 2019  Ease of Doing Business Index  ranksMauritius 13th worldwide out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doingbusiness. According to the Mauritian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the country'schallenges are heavy reliance on a few industry sectors, high brain drain,scarcity of skilled labour, ageing population and inefficient public companiesand para-statal bodies. [189]

Mauritius has built its success on a free market economy.According to the 2019  Economic Freedom of the World  report,Mauritius is ranked as having the 9th most free economy in the world. [190]

According to the  Financial ServicesCommission , financial and insurance activities contributed to 11.1% of thecountry's GDP in 2018. [191]  Overthe years, Mauritius has been positioning itself as the preferred hub forinvestment into Africa due its strategic location between Asia and Africa,hybrid regulatory framework, ease of doing business, investment protectiontreaties, non-double taxation treaties, highly qualified and multilingualworkforce, political stability, low crime rate coupled with modern infrastructureand connectivity. It is home to a number of international banks, legal firms,corporate services, investment funds and private equity funds. Financialproducts and services, includes private banking, global business, insurance andreinsurance, limited companies, protected cell companies, trust and foundation,investment banking, global headquarter administration. [192] [193]

Corporate tax rate ranges from 15% to 17% and individual taxrate ranges from 10% to 25%. [194] [195]  Whilethe country also offer incentives such as tax holidays and exemptions in somespecific sectors in order to boost its competitiveness, the country is oftentagged as a tax heaven by the press due to individuals and companies whoengaged in abusive practices in its financial sector. [196]  Thecountry has built up a solid reputation by making use of best practices andadopting a strong legal and regulatory framework to demonstrate its compliancewith international demands for greater transparency. [197]  InJune 2015, Mauritius adhered to the multilateral  Conventionon Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters , and hasan exchange information mechanism with 127 jurisdictions. Mauritius is afounding member of the Eastern and Southern Africa Anti Money Laundering Groupand has been at the forefront in the fight against money laundering and otherforms of financial crime. The country has adopted exchange of information on anautomatic basis under the  Common Reporting Standard  andthe  Foreign Accounts TaxCompliance Act . [198]

Tourism [ edit ]

Mauritius is a major tourist destination, and the tourism sectoris the fourth contributor to the Mauritian economy. The island nation enjoys atropical climate with clear warm sea waters, beaches, tropical fauna and floracomplemented by a multi-ethnic and cultural population. [199]  Theforecast of tourist arrivals for the year 2019 is maintained at 1,450,000,representing an increase of 3.6% over the figure of 1,399,408 in 2018. [200]

Mauritius currently has two  UNESCO   World Heritage Sites , namely, Aapravasi Ghat  and  Le MorneCultural Landscape . Additionally,  Black River Gorges NationalPark  is currently in the UNESCO tentative list. [201]

Transport [ edit ]

Since 2005 public buses in Mauritius have been free of chargefor students, people with disabilities and senior citizens. [202]  Thereis currently a railway project under construction in Mauritius, formerprivately owned industrial railways having been abandoned. The harbour of  PortLouis  handles international trade as well as a cruise terminal.The sole international airport for civil aviation is  Sir Seewoosagur RamgoolamInternational Airport , which also serves as the homeoperating base for the national airline  Air Mauritius ; the airport authorityinaugurated a new passenger terminal in September 2013. [203]  Anotherairport is the  Sir Gaëtan Duval Airport  in  Rodrigues .Mauritius has a serious traffic problem due to the high number of road users,particularly car drivers. To solve the traffic congestion issue, the governmenthas embarked on the  Metro Express  project.The line starts from Port Louis and will go to Curepipe when completed. Thefirst phase has begun since 2020 and the second phase has been completed in2021. The project is at its final stages and will launch fully in October.Further plans are in development by the government.

Information and communications technology [ edit ]

The information and communications technology (ICT) sector hascontributed to 5.7% of its GDP in 2016. [204]

Additionally, the African Network Information Centre ( AFRINIC ) –the  regional Internet registry  forAfrica – is headquartered in  Ebene .

Mauritius is also connected to global Internet infrastructurevia multiple optical fibre  submarine communicationscables , including the Lower Indian Ocean Network ( LION ) cable, the  Mauritius–RodriguesSubmarine Cable , and the South Africa Far East ( SAFE ) cable.

Culture [ edit ]

Main article:  Culture of Mauritius

GabrielleWiehe  is a prominent illustrator and graphic designer. Mauritiusis also the source of the  Mauritius "Post Office"stamps , among the rarest postage stamps in the world, last sold for $4million, and considered "the greatest item in all philately" by some. [206]

Architecture [ edit ]

The distinctive architecture of Mauritius reflects the islandnation's history as a colonial trade base connecting Europe with the East.Styles and forms introduced by Dutch, French, and British settlers from theseventeenth century onward, mixed with influences from India and East Africa,resulted in a unique hybrid architecture of international historic, social, andartistic significance. Mauritian structures present a variety of designs,materials, and decorative elements that are unique to the country and informthe historical context of the Indian Ocean and European colonialism. [207]

Decades of political, social, and economic change have resultedin the routine destruction of Mauritian architectural heritage. Between 1960and 1980, the historic homes of the island's high grounds, known locally ascampagnes, disappeared at alarming rates. More recent years have witnessed thedemolition of plantations, residences, and civic buildings as they have beencleared or drastically renovated for new developments to serve an expandingtourism industry. The capital city of Port Louis remained relatively unchangeduntil the mid-1990s, yet now reflects the irreversible damage that has beeninflicted on its built heritage. Rising land values are pitted against thecultural value of historic structures in Mauritius, while the prohibitive costsof maintenance and the steady decline in traditional building skills make itharder to invest in preservation. [207]

The general populace historically lived in what are termedcreole houses. [208]

Literature [ edit ]

Mainarticle:  Mauritian literature

Prominent Mauritian writers include  Marie-Thérèse Humbert ,  Malcolmde Chazal ,  AnandaDevi , Shenaz Patel ,  KhalTorabully ,  J. M. G. Le Clézio , Aqiil Gopee  and  DevVirahsawmy . J. M. G. Le Clézio, who won the  Nobel Prize for Literature  in2008, is of Mauritian heritage and holds dual French-Mauritian citizenship. Theisland plays host to the Le Prince Maurice Prize. In keeping with the island'sliterary culture the prize alternates on a yearly basis betweenEnglish-speaking and French-speaking writers.

Music [ edit ]

Mainarticles:  Music of Mauritius  and  Sega (genre)

The major musical genres of Mauritius are  Sega  andits  fusiongenre , Seggae ,  Bhojpuri   folksongs ,  Indian movie music  especially  Bollywood ,and  Classicalmusic  mainly  Western classical music  and  Indian classical music .

Cuisine [ edit ]

Furtherinformation:  Mauritian cuisine

Mauritiancuisine  is a combination of Indian, Creole, French and Chinese,with many dishes unique to the island. Spices are also a major component ofMauritian cuisine. There is a local variant of the Persian Falooda  which is locally known as Alouda ,which is a cold beverage made with milk, basil seeds, and agar-agar jelly.Locally made French pastry and bread are sold in most localities. Popularhawker meals include a wrap called Dholl Puri, rice based  Biryani  and gâteaupiment . [209]

Holidays and festivals [ edit ]

The public holidays of Mauritius involve the blending of severalcultures from Mauritius's history. There are  Hindufestivals ,  Christian festivals ,  Chinesefestivals , and  Muslimfestivals . [210]  Thereare 14 annual public holidays in Mauritius with New Year celebrated over twodays if it falls on a weekend. All the public holidays related to religiousfestivals have dates that vary from year to year except for Christmas. Otherfestivals such as  Holi ,  RakshaBandhan ,  DurgaPuja , [211]   Père Laval Pilgrimage  also enrich thecultural landscape of Mauritius.