Auschwitz Black Silver Coin Holocaust Birkenau Remembrance Death Camp Israel USA

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Seller: Top-Rated Seller anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (33,495) 99.8%, Location: Manchester,Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 315226710956 Auschwitz Black Silver Coin Holocaust Birkenau Remembrance Death Camp Israel USA. Holocaust Remeberance Coin 75th Anniversary of Auschwitz Liberation 2020 This is a Gun Metal Silver Pated Coin to commemorate 75th Anniversary of the Liberation of Auschwitz which was also International Holocaust Remberence Day 2020 One side has the infamous sign from the entrance to Auswitch "Arbeit Macht Frei" which ironically translates to "Work Sets You Free" In the background is a building from the Auschwitz Concentration Camp It has the words "75th Anniversary Auschwitz Liberation 1945 - 2020" and the phrase "Never Forget! Never Again!" The other side has the train tracks entrance to nearby Birkenau Camp with the words "International Holocaust Rememberance Day 27 Jan 2020" The coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about 1 oz and it comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder. in Excellent Condition . Like all my items...Bidding Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve.....Grab a Bargain!!!! Starting at its monetary value one Penny...With No Reserve Would make an Excellent Lucky Charm or Collectible Keepsake Souvenir
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This day commemorates the memory of the six million Jews who were murdered during the Holocaust, as well as the millions of others who were persecuted and killed by the Nazi regime. It is a day to remember the atrocities of the past and to honor the victims, as well as to educate current and future generations about the dangers of hatred and intolerance. The Holocaust was one of the darkest periods in human history. From 1933 to 1945, the Nazi regime systematically persecuted and murdered millions of people, including Jews, Roma, disabled individuals, homosexuals, and others who were deemed "undesirable" by the regime. The Nazis believed in a concept called "racial purity," which held that certain groups were superior to others and that those who were deemed inferior should be eliminated. This ideology led to the creation of concentration camps, where prisoners were subjected to forced labor, medical experiments, and ultimately, mass extermination in gas chambers. International Holocaust Remembrance Day is a day for the world to remember the victims of this horrific chapter in history. It is a day to honor the memory of those who perished and to pay tribute to the survivors who have shared their stories of courage and resilience. It is also a day to reflect on the lessons of the Holocaust and to recognize the importance of promoting tolerance and understanding in our world today. One of the most important lessons of the Holocaust is the danger of prejudice and intolerance. The Holocaust did not happen overnight; it was the result of years of propaganda and hate speech that dehumanized Jews and other targeted groups. We must be vigilant against these same forces today, which can be seen in the rise of anti-Semitism, racism, and xenophobia around the world. By educating ourselves about the past and speaking out against hate in all its forms, we can work towards creating a more just and peaceful world. International Holocaust Remembrance Day is also a day to recognize the importance of preserving the memory of the Holocaust for future generations. As the survivors of the Holocaust grow older, it is crucial that we continue to share their stories and educate young people about the horrors of the past. This can be done through school curriculums, museums and memorials, and community events. By keeping the memory of the Holocaust alive, we can ensure that the world never forgets the lessons of this dark chapter in history. In conclusion, International Holocaust Remembrance Day is an important day for the world to remember the victims of the Holocaust and to honor their memory. It is also a day to reflect on the lessons of the past and to work towards a more tolerant and peaceful world. By remembering the atrocities of the past and educating ourselves and future generations about the dangers of hate and intolerance, we can build a better world for all. The Holocaust Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page extended-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Holocaust" and "Shoah" redirect here. For other uses, see Holocaust (disambiguation) and Shoah (disambiguation). The Holocaust Part of World War II Selection on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1944 (Auschwitz Album) 1a.jpg From the Auschwitz Album: Hungarian Jews arriving at Auschwitz II in German-occupied Poland, May 1944. Most were "selected" to go to the gas chambers. Camp prisoners are visible in their striped uniforms.[1] Location German Reich, German-occupied Europe and allies of Nazi Germany Description Genocide of the European Jews Date 1941–1945[2] Attack type Genocideethnic cleansingmass murder Deaths Around 6 million Jews Perpetrators Adolf Hitler Nazi Germany plus its collaborators Germany's allies List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust Motive Antisemitismracismpan-Germanism Trials Nuremberg trials, Subsequent Nuremberg trials, Trial of Adolf Eichmann, and others The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah,[a] was the genocide of European Jews during World War II.[b] Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe;[c] around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population.[d] The murders were carried out in pogroms and mass shootings; by a policy of extermination through labor in concentration camps; and in gas chambers and gas vans in German extermination camps, chiefly Auschwitz-Birkenau, Bełżec, Chełmno, Majdanek, Sobibór, and Treblinka in occupied Poland.[4] Germany implemented the persecution in stages. Following Adolf Hitler's appointment as chancellor on 30 January 1933, the regime built a network of concentration camps in Germany for political opponents and those deemed "undesirable", starting with Dachau on 22 March 1933.[5] After the passing of the Enabling Act on 24 March,[6] which gave Hitler dictatorial plenary powers, the government began isolating Jews from civil society; this included boycotting Jewish businesses in April 1933 and enacting the Nuremberg Laws in September 1935. On 9–10 November 1938, eight months after Germany annexed Austria, Jewish businesses and other buildings were ransacked or set on fire throughout Germany and Austria on what became known as Kristallnacht (the "Night of Broken Glass"). After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering World War II, the regime set up ghettos to segregate Jews. Eventually, thousands of camps and other detention sites were established across German-occupied Europe. The segregation of Jews in ghettos culminated in the policy of extermination the Nazis called the Final Solution to the Jewish Question, discussed by senior government officials at the Wannsee Conference in Berlin in January 1942. As German forces captured territories in the East, all anti-Jewish measures were radicalized. Under the coordination of the SS, with directions from the highest leadership of the Nazi Party, killings were committed within Germany itself, throughout occupied Europe, and within territories controlled by Germany's allies. Paramilitary death squads called Einsatzgruppen, in cooperation with the German Army and local collaborators, murdered around 1.3 million Jews in mass shootings and pogroms from the summer of 1941. By mid-1942, victims were being deported from ghettos across Europe in sealed freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, they were gassed, worked or beaten to death, or killed by disease, starvation, cold, medical experiments, or during death marches. The killing continued until the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945. The European Jews were targeted for extermination as part of a larger event during the Holocaust era (1933–1945),[7] in which Germany and its collaborators persecuted and murdered millions of others, including ethnic Poles, Soviet civilians and prisoners of war, the Roma, the disabled, political and religious dissidents, transgender individuals, and gay men.[8] Terminology and scope Terminology Main article: Names of the Holocaust Part of a series on The Holocaust Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0827-318, KZ Auschwitz, Ankunft ungarischer Juden.jpg Jews on selection ramp at Auschwitz, May 1944 Responsibility Nazi Germany People Major perpetratorsAdolf HitlerHeinrich HimmlerHeinrich MüllerReinhard HeydrichAdolf EichmannOdilo GlobocnikTheodor EickeRichard GlücksErnst KaltenbrunnerRudolf HössChristian WirthJoseph GoebbelsIon AntonescuLászló FerenczyPhilippe Pétain Organizations Nazi PartyGestapoSchutzstaffel (SS)Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV)EinsatzgruppenSturmabteilung (SA)Verfügungstruppe (SS-VT)WehrmachtTrawniki men Collaborators during World War II Nazi ideologues Early policies Racial policyNazi eugenicsNuremberg LawsHaavara AgreementMadagascar PlanForced euthanasia Victims JewsRomani people (Gypsies)PolesSoviet POWsSlavs in Eastern EuropeHomosexualsPeople with disabilities Ghettos BiałystokBudapestKaunasKrakówŁódźLublinLwówMinskRigaWarsawVilnius Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland List of selected ghettos Camps Nazi extermination camps Auschwitz II-BirkenauBełżecChełmnoJasenovacMajdanekSajmišteSobiborTreblinka Nazi concentration camps Auschwitz IBergen-BelsenBogdanovkaBuchenwaldDachauDoraGonars (Italy)Gross-RosenHerzogenbuschJanowskaKaiserwaldMauthausen-GusenNeuengammeRabRavensbrückSachsenhausenSalaspilsStutthofTransnistria (Romania)TheresienstadtUckermarkWarsaw Transit and collection camps Belgium BreendonkMechelen France GursDrancy Italy Bolzano Netherlands AmersfoortWesterbork Slovakia Sereď Divisions SS-TotenkopfverbändeConcentration Camps InspectoratePolitische AbteilungSanitätswesen Extermination methods Gas vanGas chamberExtermination through labourEinsatzgruppenHuman medical experimentation Atrocities Pogroms KristallnachtBucharestDorohoiIaşiIzieuSzczuczynJedwabnePlungėKaunasLviv (Lvov)MarseilleTykocinVel' d'HivWąsosz Einsatzgruppen Babi YarBydgoszczCzęstochowaKamianets-PodilskyiNinth FortOdessaPiaśnicaPonaryRumbulaErntefest "Final Solution" Wannsee ConferenceMogilev ConferenceOperation "Reinhard"Holocaust trainsExtermination camps End of World War II Wola massacreDeath marches Resistance Auschwitz Protocols Vrba–Wetzler reportCzesław MordowiczJerzy TabeauRudolf VrbaAlfréd WetzlerBrichaJewish partisansSonderkommando photographsWitold Pilecki Resistance movement in AuschwitzZwiązek Organizacji WojskowejWitold's Report Ghetto uprisings WarsawBiałystokŁachwaCzęstochowa International response Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations Auschwitz bombing debateMS St. LouisNuremberg trialsDenazification Aftermath BrichaDisplaced personsSurvivorsCentral Committee of the Liberated Jews Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany Lists Holocaust survivors Deportations of French Jews to death camps Survivors of SobiborTimeline of Treblinka extermination campVictims of NazismRescuers of JewsMemorials and museums Resources BibliographyList of books about Nazi Germany The Destruction of the European Jews Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos Functionalism versus intentionalism Remembrance Days of remembranceMemorials and museumsRighteous Among the Nations vte The first recorded use of the term holocaust in its modern sense was made in 1895 by The New York Times to describe the massacre of Armenian Christians by Ottoman forces.[9] The term comes from the Greek: ὁλόκαυστος, romanized: holókaustos; ὅλος hólos, "whole" + καυστός kaustós, "burnt offering".[e] The biblical term shoah (Hebrew: שׁוֹאָה), meaning "calamity" (and also used to refer to "destruction" since the Middle Ages), became the standard Hebrew term for the murder of the European Jews. According to Haaretz, the writer Yehuda Erez may have been the first to describe events in Germany as the shoah. Davar and later Haaretz both used the term in September 1939.[11][f] On 3 October 1941 the American Hebrew used the phrase "before the Holocaust", apparently to refer to the situation in France,[13] and in May 1943 the New York Times, discussing the Bermuda Conference, referred to the "hundreds of thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi Holocaust".[14] In 1968 the Library of Congress created a new category, "Holocaust, Jewish (1939–1945)".[15] The term was popularised in the United States by the NBC mini-series Holocaust (1978) about a fictional family of German Jews,[16] and in November that year the President's Commission on the Holocaust was established.[17] As non-Jewish groups began to include themselves as Holocaust victims, many Jews chose to use the Hebrew terms Shoah or Churban.[18][g] The Nazis used the phrase "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" (German: die Endlösung der Judenfrage).[20] Definition Holocaust historians commonly define the Holocaust as the genocide of the European Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between 1941 and 1945.[b] Donald Niewyk and Francis Nicosia, in The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust (2000), favor a definition that includes the Jews, Roma, and disabled people: "the systematic, state-sponsored murder of entire groups determined by heredity".[27][h] Other groups targeted after Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933[30] include those whom the Nazis viewed as inherently inferior (some Slavic people, particularly Poles and Russians,[31] the Roma, and the disabled), and those targeted because of their beliefs or behavior (such as Jehovah's Witnesses, communists, and homosexuals).[32] Peter Hayes writes that the persecution of these groups was less uniform than that of the Jews. For example, the Nazis' treatment of the Slavs consisted of "enslavement and gradual attrition", while some Slavs were favored; Hayes lists Bulgarians, Croats, Slovaks, and some Ukrainians.[33] In contrast, according to historian Dan Stone, Hitler regarded the Jews as "a Gegenrasse: a 'counter-race' ... not really human at all".[8] Distinctive features Genocidal state Main article: The Holocaust in Germany Further information: List of Nazi concentration camps German-occupied Europe, 1942 The logistics of the mass murder turned Germany into what Michael Berenbaum called a "genocidal state".[34] Eberhard Jäckel wrote in 1986 that it was the first time a state had thrown its power behind the idea that an entire people should be wiped out.[i] In total, 165,200 German Jews were murdered.[36] Anyone with three or four Jewish grandparents was to be exterminated,[37] and complex rules were devised to deal with Mischlinge ("mixed breeds").[38] Bureaucrats identified who was a Jew, confiscated property, and scheduled trains to deport them. Companies fired Jews and later used them as slave labor. Universities dismissed Jewish faculty and students. German pharmaceutical companies tested drugs on camp prisoners; other companies built the crematoria.[34] As prisoners entered the death camps, they surrendered all personal property,[39] which was cataloged and tagged before being sent to Germany for reuse or recycling.[40] Through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims.[41] Medical experiments Main articles: Nazi human experimentation and Doctors' trial The 23 defendants during the Doctors' trial, Nuremberg, 9 December 1946 – 20 August 1947 At least 7,000 camp inmates were subjected to medical experiments; most died during them or as a result.[42] The experiments, which took place at Auschwitz, Buchenwald, Dachau, Natzweiler-Struthof, Neuengamme, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen, sought to uncover strategies to counteract chemical weapons, survive harsh environments, develop new vaccines and drugs and treat wounds. Many men and women were also involuntarily sterilized.[42] After the war, 23 senior physicians and other medical personnel were charged at Nuremberg with crimes against humanity. They included the head of the German Red Cross, tenured professors, clinic directors, and biomedical researchers.[43] The most notorious physician was Josef Mengele, an SS officer who became the Auschwitz camp doctor on 30 May 1943.[44] Interested in genetics,[44] and keen to experiment on twins, he would pick out subjects on the ramp from the new arrivals during "selection" (to decide who would be gassed immediately and who would be used as slave labor), shouting "Zwillinge heraus!" (twins step forward!).[45] The twins would be measured, killed, and dissected. One of Mengele's assistants said in 1946 that he was told to send organs of interest to the directors of the "Anthropological Institute in Berlin-Dahlem". This is thought to refer to Mengele's academic supervisor, Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, director from October 1942 of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics in Berlin-Dahlem.[46][j] Origins Antisemitism and the völkisch movement Antisemitic Christian Social Party placard from the 1920 Austrian legislative election: "Vote Social Christian. German Christians Save Austria!"[48] See also: History of the Jews in Germany, Christianity and antisemitism, Martin Luther and antisemitism, Religious antisemitism, and Racial antisemitism Throughout the Middle Ages in Europe, Jews were subjected to antisemitism based on Christian theology, which blamed them for killing Jesus. Even after the Reformation, Catholicism and Lutheranism continued to persecute Jews, accusing them of blood libels and subjecting them to pogroms and expulsions.[49] The second half of the 19th century saw the emergence, in the German empire and Austria-Hungary, of the völkisch movement, developed by such thinkers as Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Paul de Lagarde. The movement embraced a pseudo-scientific racism that viewed Jews as a race whose members were locked in mortal combat with the Aryan race for world domination.[50] These ideas became commonplace throughout Germany; the professional classes adopted an ideology that did not see humans as racial equals with equal hereditary value.[51] The Nazi Party (the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or National Socialist German Workers' Party) originated as an offshoot of the völkisch movement, and it adopted that movement's antisemitism.[52] Germany after World War I, Hitler's world view Further information: Aftermath of World War I; Treaty of Versailles; Adolf Hitler, antisemitism and the Holocaust; Mein Kampf; and Historiography of Adolf Hitler After World War I (1914–1918), many Germans did not accept that their country had been defeated. A stab-in-the-back myth developed, insinuating that disloyal politicians, chiefly Jews and communists, had orchestrated Germany's surrender. Inflaming the anti-Jewish sentiment was the apparent over-representation of Jews in the leadership of communist revolutionary governments in Europe, such as Ernst Toller, head of a short-lived revolutionary government in Bavaria. This perception contributed to the canard of Jewish Bolshevism.[53] Early antisemites in the Nazi Party included Dietrich Eckart, publisher of the Völkischer Beobachter, the party's newspaper, and Alfred Rosenberg, who wrote antisemitic articles for it in the 1920s. Rosenberg's vision of a secretive Jewish conspiracy ruling the world would influence Hitler's views of Jews by making them the driving force behind communism.[54] Central to Hitler's world view was the idea of expansion and Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for German Aryans, a policy of what Doris Bergen called "race and space". Open about his hatred of Jews, he subscribed to common antisemitic stereotypes.[55] From the early 1920s onwards, he compared the Jews to germs and said they should be dealt with in the same way. He viewed Marxism as a Jewish doctrine, said he was fighting against "Jewish Marxism", and believed that Jews had created communism as part of a conspiracy to destroy Germany.[56] Rise of Nazi Germany Dictatorship and repression (January 1933) Further information: Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Anti-Nazi boycott of 1933, and Persecution of the Jews in Schleswig-Holstein (1933–1945) Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses: SA troopers urge a boycott outside Israel's Department Store, Berlin, 1 April 1933. All signs read: "Germans! Defend yourselves! Don't buy from Jews!"[57] With the appointment in January 1933 of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany and the Nazi's seizure of power, German leaders proclaimed the rebirth of the Volksgemeinschaft ("people's community").[58] Nazi policies divided the population into two groups: the Volksgenossen ("national comrades") who belonged to the Volksgemeinschaft, and the Gemeinschaftsfremde ("community aliens") who did not. Enemies were divided into three groups: the "racial" or "blood" enemies, such as the Jews and Roma; political opponents of Nazism, such as Marxists, liberals, Christians, and the "reactionaries" viewed as wayward "national comrades"; and moral opponents, such as gay men, the work-shy, and habitual criminals. The latter two groups were to be sent to concentration camps for "re-education", with the aim of eventual absorption into the Volksgemeinschaft. "Racial" enemies could never belong to the Volksgemeinschaft; they were to be removed from society.[59] Before and after the March 1933 Reichstag elections, the Nazis intensified their campaign of violence against opponents,[60] setting up concentration camps for extrajudicial imprisonment.[61] One of the first, at Dachau, opened on 22 March 1933.[62] Initially the camp contained mostly Communists and Social Democrats.[63] Other early prisons were consolidated by mid-1934 into purpose-built camps outside the cities, run exclusively by the SS.[64] The camps served as a deterrent by terrorizing Germans who did not support the regime.[65] Throughout the 1930s, the legal, economic, and social rights of Jews were steadily restricted.[66] On 1 April 1933, there was a boycott of Jewish businesses.[67] On 7 April 1933, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service was passed, which excluded Jews and other "non-Aryans" from the civil service.[68] Jews were disbarred from practicing law, being editors or proprietors of newspapers, joining the Journalists' Association, or owning farms.[69] In Silesia, in March 1933, a group of men entered the courthouse and beat up Jewish lawyers; Friedländer writes that, in Dresden, Jewish lawyers and judges were dragged out of courtrooms during trials.[70] Jewish students were restricted by quotas from attending schools and universities.[68] Jewish businesses were targeted for closure or "Aryanization", the forcible sale to Germans; of the approximately 50,000 Jewish-owned businesses in Germany in 1933, about 7,000 were still Jewish-owned in April 1939. Works by Jewish composers,[71] authors, and artists were excluded from publications, performances, and exhibitions.[72] Jewish doctors were dismissed or urged to resign. The Deutsches Ärzteblatt (a medical journal) reported on 6 April 1933: "Germans are to be treated by Germans only."[73] Sterilization Law, Aktion T4 Main article: Aktion T4 Further information: Nazi eugenics and Erbkrank The poster (c. 1937) reads: "60,000 RM is what this person with hereditary illness costs the community in his lifetime. Fellow citizen, that is your money too. Read Neues Volk, the monthly magazine of the Office of Racial Policy of the Nazi Party."[74] The economic strain of the Great Depression led Protestant charities and some members of the German medical establishment to advocate compulsory sterilization of the "incurable" mentally and physically disabled,[75] people the Nazis called Lebensunwertes Leben (life unworthy of life).[76] On 14 July 1933, the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring (Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses), the Sterilization Law, was passed.[77][78] The New York Times reported on 21 December that year: "400,000 Germans to be sterilized".[79] There were 84,525 applications from doctors in the first year. The courts reached a decision in 64,499 of those cases; 56,244 were in favor of sterilization.[80] Estimates for the number of involuntary sterilizations during the whole of the Third Reich range from 300,000 to 400,000.[81] In October 1939 Hitler signed a "euthanasia decree" backdated to 1 September 1939 that authorized Reichsleiter Philipp Bouhler, the chief of Hitler's Chancellery, and Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician, to carry out a program of involuntary euthanasia. After the war this program came to be known as Aktion T4,[82] named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, where the various organizations involved were headquartered.[83] T4 was mainly directed at adults, but the euthanasia of children was also carried out.[84] Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were killed, as were 5,000 children and 1,000 Jews, also in institutions. There were also dedicated killing centers, where the deaths were estimated at 20,000, according to Georg Renno, deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the euthanasia centers, or 400,000, according to Frank Zeireis, commandant of the Mauthausen concentration camp.[85] Overall, the number of mentally and physically disabled people murdered was about 150,000.[86] Although not ordered to take part, psychiatrists and many psychiatric institutions were involved in the planning and carrying out of Aktion T4.[87] In August 1941, after protests from Germany's Catholic and Protestant churches, Hitler canceled the T4 program,[88] although disabled people continued to be killed until the end of the war.[86] The medical community regularly received bodies for research; for example, the University of Tübingen received 1,077 bodies from executions between 1933 and 1945. The German neuroscientist Julius Hallervorden received 697 brains from one hospital between 1940 and 1944: "I accepted these brains of course. Where they came from and how they came to me was really none of my business."[89] Nuremberg Laws, Jewish emigration Main article: Nuremberg Laws See also: Jewish refugees from German-occupied Europe in the United Kingdom Czechoslovakian Jews at Croydon airport, England, 31 March 1939, before deportation[90] On 15 September 1935, the Reichstag passed the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, known as the Nuremberg Laws. The former said that only those of "German or kindred blood" could be citizens. Anyone with three or more Jewish grandparents was classified as a Jew.[91] The second law said: "Marriages between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden." Sexual relationships between them were also criminalized; Jews were not allowed to employ German women under the age of 45 in their homes.[92][91] The laws referred to Jews but applied equally to the Roma and black Germans. Although other European countries—Bulgaria, Independent State of Croatia, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, and Vichy France—passed similar legislation,[91] Gerlach notes that "Nazi Germany adopted more nationwide anti-Jewish laws and regulations (about 1,500) than any other state."[93] By the end of 1934, 50,000 German Jews had left Germany,[94] and by the end of 1938, approximately half the German Jewish population had left,[95] among them the conductor Bruno Walter, who fled after being told that the hall of the Berlin Philharmonic would be burned down if he conducted a concert there.[96] Albert Einstein, who was in the United States when Hitler came to power, never returned to Germany; his citizenship was revoked and he was expelled from the Kaiser Wilhelm Society and Prussian Academy of Sciences.[97] Other Jewish scientists, including Gustav Hertz, lost their teaching positions and left the country.[98] Anschluss (12 March 1938) Main article: Anschluss March or April 1938: Jews are forced to scrub the pavement in Vienna, Austria. On 12 March 1938, Germany annexed Austria. Ninety percent of Austria's 176,000 Jews lived in Vienna.[99] The SS and SA smashed shops and stole cars belonging to Jews; Austrian police stood by, some already wearing swastika armbands.[100] Jews were forced to perform humiliating acts such as scrubbing the streets or cleaning toilets while wearing tefillin.[101] Around 7,000 Jewish businesses were "Aryanized", and all the legal restrictions on Jews in Germany were imposed in Austria.[102] The Évian Conference was held in France in July 1938 by 32 countries, to help German and Austrian Jewish refugees, but little was accomplished and most countries did not increase the number of refugees they would accept.[103] In August that year, Adolf Eichmann was appointed manager (under Franz Walter Stahlecker) of the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna (Zentralstelle für jüdische Auswanderung in Wien).[104] Sigmund Freud and his family arrived in London from Vienna in June 1938, thanks to what David Cesarani called "Herculean efforts" to get them out.[105] Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938) Main article: Kristallnacht Further information: Pogrom and Goebbels Diaries Potsdamer Straße 26, Berlin, the day after Kristallnacht, November 1938 On 7 November 1938, Herschel Grynszpan, a Polish Jew, shot the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in the German Embassy in Paris, in retaliation for the expulsion of his parents and siblings from Germany.[106][k] When vom Rath died on 9 November, the synagogue and Jewish shops in Dessau were attacked. According to Joseph Goebbels' diary, Hitler decided that the police should be withdrawn: "For once the Jews should feel the rage of the people," Goebbels reported him as saying.[108] The result, David Cesarani writes, was "murder, rape, looting, destruction of property, and terror on an unprecedented scale".[109] Known as Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass"), the pogrom on 9–10 November 1938 saw over 7,500 Jewish shops (out of 9,000) looted and attacked, and over 1,000 synagogues damaged or destroyed. Groups of Jews were forced by the crowd to watch their synagogues burn; in Bensheim they were made to dance around it and in Laupheim to kneel before it.[110] At least 90 Jews were murdered. The damage was estimated at 39 million Reichsmark.[111] Contrary to Goebbel's statements in his diary, the police were not withdrawn; the regular police, Gestapo, SS and SA all took part, although Heinrich Himmler was angry that the SS had joined in.[112] Attacks took place in Austria too.[113] The extent of the violence shocked the rest of the world. The Times of London stated on 11 November 1938: No foreign propagandist bent upon blackening Germany before the world could outdo the tale of burnings and beatings, of blackguardly assaults upon defenseless and innocent people, which disgraced that country yesterday. Either the German authorities were a party to this outbreak or their powers over public order and a hooligan minority are not what they are proudly claimed to be.[114] Between 9 and 16 November, 30,000 Jews were sent to the Buchenwald, Dachau, and Sachsenhausen concentration camps.[115] Many were released within weeks; by early 1939, 2,000 remained in the camps.[116] German Jewry was held collectively responsible for restitution of the damage; they also had to pay an "atonement tax" of over a billion Reichsmark. Insurance payments for damage to their property were confiscated by the government. A decree on 12 November 1938 barred Jews from most remaining occupations.[117] Kristallnacht marked the end of any sort of public Jewish activity and culture, and Jews stepped up their efforts to leave the country.[118] Resettlement Further information: Haavara Agreement Before World War II, Germany considered mass deportation from Europe of German, and later European, Jewry.[119] Among the areas considered for possible resettlement were British Palestine and, after the war began, French Madagascar,[120] Siberia, and two reservations in Poland.[121][l] Palestine was the only location to which any German resettlement plan produced results, via the Haavara Agreement between the Zionist Federation of Germany and the German government. Between November 1933 and December 1939, the agreement resulted in the emigration of about 53,000 German Jews, who were allowed to transfer RM 100 million of their assets to Palestine by buying German goods, in violation of the Jewish-led anti-Nazi boycott of 1933.[123] Outbreak of World War II Invasion of Poland (1 September 1939) Ghettos Further information: Invasion of Poland, The Holocaust in Poland, and Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland Declaration of war 2:54 British prime minister Neville Chamberlain announces war with Germany, 3 September 1939. Between 2.7 and 3 million Polish Jews were murdered during the Holocaust, out of a population of 3.3 – 3.5 million.[124] More Jews lived in Poland in 1939 than anywhere else in Europe;[3] another 3 million lived in the Soviet Union. When the German Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war from the UK and France, Germany gained control of about two million Jews in the territory it occupied. The rest of Poland was occupied by the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland from the east on 17 September 1939.[125] photograph Wall of the Warsaw Ghetto dividing Iron-Gate Square, 24 May 1941; Lubomirski Palace (left) is outside the ghetto. photograph Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto march to the Umschlagplatz before being sent to a camp, April or May 1943. The Wehrmacht in Poland was accompanied by seven SS Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolitizei ("special task forces of the Security Police") and an Einsatzkommando, numbering 3,000 men in all, whose role was to deal with "all anti-German elements in hostile country behind the troops in combat".[126] German plans for Poland included expelling non-Jewish Poles from large areas, settling Germans on the emptied lands,[127] sending the Polish leadership to camps, denying the lower classes an education, and confining Jews.[128] The Germans sent Jews from all territories they had annexed (Austria, the Czech lands, and western Poland) to the central section of Poland, which was termed the General Government.[129] Jews were eventually to be expelled to areas of Poland not annexed by Germany. Still, in the meantime, they would be concentrated in major cities ghettos to achieve, according to an order from Reinhard Heydrich dated 21 September 1939, "a better possibility of control and later deportation".[130][m] From 1 December, Jews were required to wear Star of David armbands.[129] The Germans stipulated that each ghetto be led by a Judenrat of 24 male Jews, who would be responsible for carrying out German orders.[132] These orders included, from 1942, facilitating deportations to extermination camps.[133] The Warsaw Ghetto was established in November 1940, and by early 1941 it contained 445,000 people;[134] the second largest, the Łódź Ghetto, held 160,000 as of May 1940.[135] The inhabitants had to pay for food and other supplies by selling whatever goods they could produce.[134] In the ghettos and forced-labor camps, at least half a million died of starvation, disease, and poor living conditions.[136] Although the Warsaw Ghetto contained 30 percent of the city's population, it occupied only 2.4 percent of its area,[137] averaging over nine people per room.[138] Over 43,000 residents died there in 1941.[139] Pogroms in occupied eastern Poland Jewish women were stripped, beaten and raped in Lwów, occupied eastern Poland (later Lviv, Ukraine), during the Lviv pogroms, July 1941.[140][n] Further information: Jedwabne pogrom, Lviv pogroms, Szczuczyn pogrom, and Wąsosz pogrom Peter Hayes writes that the Germans created a "Hobbesian world" in Poland in which different parts of the population were pitted against each other.[141] A perception among ethnic Poles that the Jews had supported the Soviet invasion[142] contributed to existing antisemitism,[143] which Germany exploited, redistributing Jewish homes and goods, and converting synagogues, schools and hospitals in Jewish areas into facilities for non-Jews.[144] The Germans ordered the death penalty for anyone helping Jews. Informants pointed out who was Jewish and the Poles who were helping to hide them[145] during the Judenjagd (hunt for the Jews).[146] Despite the dangers, thousands of Poles helped Jews.[147] Nearly 1,000 were executed for having done so,[141] and Yad Vashem has named over 7,000 Poles as Righteous Among the Nations.[148] Pogroms occurred throughout the occupation. During the Lviv pogroms in Lwów, occupied eastern Poland (later Lviv, Ukraine)[n] in June and July 1941—the population was 157,490 Polish; 99,595 Jewish; and 49,747 Ukrainian[149]—some 6,000 Jews were murdered in the streets by the Ukrainian nationalists (specifically, the OUN)[150] and Ukrainian People's Militia, aided by local people.[151] Jewish women were stripped, beaten, and raped.[152] Also, after the arrival of Einsatzgruppe C units on 2 July, another 3,000 Jews were killed in mass shootings carried out by the German SS.[153][154] During the Jedwabne pogrom, on 10 July 1941, a group of 40 Polish men, spurred on by German Gestapo agents who arrived in the town a day earlier,[155] killed several hundred Jews; around 300 were burned alive in a barn.[156] According to Hayes, this was "one of sixty-six nearly simultaneous such attacks in the province of Suwałki alone and some two hundred similar incidents in the Soviet-annexed eastern provinces".[142] German Nazi Extermination camps in Poland Jews arrive with their belongings at the Auschwitz II extermination camp, summer 1944, thinking they were being resettled. Further information: German camps in occupied Poland during World War II At the end of 1941, the Germans began building extermination camps in Poland: Auschwitz II,[157] Bełżec,[158] Chełmno,[159] Majdanek,[160] Sobibór,[161] and Treblinka.[162] Gas chambers had been installed by the spring or summer of 1942.[163] The SS liquidated most of the ghettos of the General Government area in 1942–1943 (the Łódź Ghetto was liquidated in mid-1944),[164] and shipped their populations to these camps, along with Jews from all over Europe.[165][o] The camps provided locals with employment and with black-market goods confiscated from Jewish families who, thinking they were being resettled, arrived with their belongings. According to Hayes, dealers in currency and jewellery set up shop outside the Treblinka extermination camp (near Warsaw) in 1942–1943, as did prostitutes.[144] By the end of 1942, most of the Jews in the General Government area were dead.[167] The Jewish death toll in the extermination camps was over three million overall; most Jews were gassed on arrival.[168] Invasion of Norway and Denmark Further information: German occupation of Norway, Holocaust in Norway, German invasion of Denmark, and Rescue of the Danish Jews Germany invaded Norway and Denmark on 9 April 1940, during Operation Weserübung. Denmark was overrun so quickly that there was no time for a resistance to form. Consequently, the Danish government stayed in power and the Germans found it easier to work through it. Because of this, few measures were taken against the Danish Jews before 1942.[169] By June 1940 Norway was completely occupied.[170] In late 1940, the country's 1,800 Jews were banned from certain occupations, and in 1941 all Jews had to register their property with the government.[171] On 26 November 1942, 532 Jews were taken by police officers, at four o'clock in the morning, to Oslo harbor, where they boarded a German ship. From Germany they were sent by freight train to Auschwitz. According to Dan Stone, only nine survived the war.[172] Invasion of France and the Low Countries Further information: The Holocaust in Belgium, in Luxembourg, in the Netherlands, and in France Jewish women wearing yellow badges in occupied Paris, June 1942 In May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France. After Belgium's surrender, the country was ruled by a German military governor, Alexander von Falkenhausen, who enacted anti-Jewish measures against its 90,000 Jews, many of them refugees from Germany or Eastern Europe.[173] In the Netherlands, the Germans installed Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Reichskommissar, who began to persecute the country's 140,000 Jews. Jews were forced out of their jobs and had to register with the government. In February 1941, non-Jewish Dutch citizens staged a strike in protest that was quickly crushed.[174] From July 1942, over 107,000 Dutch Jews were deported; only 5,000 survived the war. Most were sent to Auschwitz; the first transport of 1,135 Jews left Holland for Auschwitz on 15 July 1942. Between 2 March and 20 July 1943, 34,313 Jews were sent in 19 transports to the Sobibór extermination camp, where all but 18 are thought to have been gassed on arrival.[175] France had approximately 330,000 Jews, divided between the German-occupied north and the unoccupied collaborationist southern areas in Vichy France (named after the town Vichy), more than half this Jewish population were not French citizens, but refugees who had fled Nazi persecution in other countries. The occupied regions were under the control of a military governor, and there, anti-Jewish measures were not enacted as quickly as they were in the Vichy-controlled areas.[176] In July 1940, the Jews in the parts of Alsace-Lorraine that had been annexed to Germany were expelled into Vichy France.[177] Vichy France's government implemented anti-Jewish measures in Metropolitan France, in French Algeria and in the two French Protectorates of Tunisia and Morocco.[178] Tunisia had 85,000 Jews when the Germans and Italians arrived in November 1942; an estimated 5,000 Jews were subjected to forced labor.[179] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum estimates that between 72,900 and 74,000 Jews were murdered during the Holocaust in France.[36] Madagascar Plan Further information: Madagascar Plan The fall of France gave rise to the Madagascar Plan in the summer of 1940, when French Madagascar in Southeast Africa became the focus of discussions about deporting all European Jews there; it was thought that the area's harsh living conditions would hasten deaths.[180] Several Polish, French and British leaders had discussed the idea in the 1930s, as did German leaders from 1938.[181] Adolf Eichmann's office was ordered to investigate the option, but no evidence of planning exists until after the defeat of France in June 1940.[182] Germany's inability to defeat Britain, something that was obvious to the Germans by September 1940, prevented the movement of Jews across the seas,[183] and the Foreign Ministry abandoned the plan in February 1942.[184] Invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece Further information: The Holocaust in Greece, in Serbia, and in Croatia Greek Jews from Saloniki are forced to exercise or dance, July 1942. Yugoslavia and Greece were invaded in April 1941 and surrendered before the end of the month. Germany, Italy and Bulgaria divided Greece into occupation zones but did not eliminate it as a country. The pre-war Greek Jewish population had been between 72,000 and 77,000. By the end of the war, some 10,000 remained, representing the lowest survival rate in the Balkans and among the lowest in Europe.[185] Yugoslavia, home to 80,000 Jews, was dismembered; regions in the north were annexed by Germany and Hungary, regions along the coast were made part of Italy, Kosovo and western Macedonia were given to Albania, while Bulgaria received eastern Macedonia. The rest of the country was divided into the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), an Italian-German puppet state whose territory comprised Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, with the Croatian fascist Ustaše party placed in power; and German occupied Serbia, governed by German military and police administrators[186] who appointed the Serbian collaborationist puppet government, Government of National Salvation, headed by Milan Nedić.[187][188][189] In August 1942 Serbia was declared free of Jews,[190] after the Wehrmacht and German police, assisted by collaborators of the Nedić government and others such as Zbor, a pro-Nazi and pan-Serbian fascist party, had murdered nearly the entire population of 17,000 Jews.[187][188][189] In the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), the Nazi regime demanded that its rulers, the Ustaše, adopt antisemitic racial policies, persecute Jews and set up several concentration camps. NDH leader Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše accepted Nazi demands. By the end of April 1941 the Ustaše required all Jews to wear insignia, typically a yellow Star of David[191] and started confiscating Jewish property in October 1941.[192] During the same time as their persecution of Serbs and Roma, the Ustaše took part in the Holocaust, and killed the majority of the country's Jews;[193] the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum estimates that 30,148 Jews were murdered.[36] According to Jozo Tomasevich, the Jewish community in Zagreb was the only one to survive out of 115 Jewish religious communities in Yugoslavia in 1939–1940.[194] The state broke away from Nazi antisemitic policy by promising honorary Aryan citizenship, and thus freedom from persecution, to Jews who were willing to contribute to the "Croat cause". Marcus Tanner states that the "SS complained that at least 5,000 Jews were still alive in the NDH and that thousands of others had emigrated, by buying 'honorary Aryan' status".[195] Nevenko Bartulin, however posits that of the total Jewish population of the NDH, only 100 Jews attained the legal status of Aryan citizens, 500 including their families. In both cases a relatively small portion out of a Jewish population of 37,000.[196] In the Bulgarian annexed zones of Macedonia and Thrace, upon demand of the German authorities, the Bulgarians handed over the entire Jewish population, about 12,000 Jews to the military authorities, all were deported.[197] Invasion of the Soviet Union (22 June 1941) Reasons Main article: Operation Barbarossa Further information: Winter campaign of 1941–1942 Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Führer to the German People: 22 June 1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, a day Timothy Snyder called "one of the most significant days in the history of Europe ... the beginning of a calamity that defies description".[198] German propaganda portrayed the conflict as an ideological war between German National Socialism and Jewish Bolshevism, and as a racial war between the Germans and the Jewish, Romani, and Slavic Untermenschen ("sub-humans").[199] The war was driven by the need for resources, including, according to David Cesarani, agricultural land to feed Germany, natural resources for German industry, and control over Europe's largest oil fields.[200] Between early fall 1941 and late spring 1942, Jürgen Matthäus writes, 2 million of the 3.5 million Soviet POWs captured by the Wehrmacht had been executed or had died of neglect and abuse. By 1944 the Soviet death toll was at least 20 million.[201] Mass shootings Further information: The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, Collaboration in German-occupied Soviet Union, Einsatzgruppen trial, and War crimes of the Wehrmacht Further information: Babi Yar, Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre, Kaunas pogrom, Ponary massacre, and Rumbula massacre SS-Gruppenführer Otto Ohlendorf, commander of Einsatzgruppe D, pleads not guilty during the Einsatzgruppen trial, Nuremberg, 15 September 1947. He was executed in 1951. As the method of widespread execution was shooting rather than gas chamber, the Holocaust in the Soviet Union is sometimes referred to as the Holocaust by bullets. As German troops advanced, the mass shooting of "anti-German elements" was assigned, as in Poland, to the Einsatzgruppen, this time under the command of Reinhard Heydrich.[202] The point of the attacks was to destroy the local Communist Party leadership and therefore the state, including "Jews in the Party and State employment", and any "radical elements".[p] Cesarani writes that the killing of Jews was at this point a "subset" of these activities.[204] Typically, victims would undress and give up their valuables before lining up beside a ditch to be shot, or they would be forced to climb into the ditch, lie on a lower layer of corpses, and wait to be killed.[205] The latter was known as Sardinenpackung ("packing sardines"), a method reportedly started by SS officer Friedrich Jeckeln.[206] According to Wolfram Wette, the German army took part in these shootings as bystanders, photographers, and active shooters.[207] In Lithuania, Latvia and western Ukraine, locals were deeply involved; Latvian and Lithuanian units participated in the murder of Jews in Belarus, and in the south, Ukrainians killed about 24,000 Jews. Some Ukrainians went to Poland to serve as guards in the camps.[208] Einsatzgruppe A arrived in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) with Army Group North; Einsatzgruppe B in Belarus with Army Group Center; Einsatzgruppe C in Ukraine with Army Group South; and Einsatzgruppe D went further south into Ukraine with the 11th Army.[209] Each Einsatzgruppe numbered around 600–1,000 men, with a few women in administrative roles.[210] Traveling with nine German Order Police battalions and three units of the Waffen-SS,[211] the Einsatzgruppen and their local collaborators had murdered almost 500,000 people by the winter of 1941–1942. By the end of the war, they had killed around two million, including about 1.3 million Jews and up to a quarter of a million Roma.[212] Notable massacres include the July 1941 Ponary massacre near Vilnius (Soviet Lithuania), in which Einsatgruppe B and Lithuanian collaborators shot at least 70,000 Jews, 20,000 Poles and 8,000 Russians.[213] In the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre (Soviet Ukraine), nearly 24,000 Jews were killed between 27 and 30 August 1941.[201] The largest massacre was at a ravine called Babi Yar outside Kiev (also Soviet Ukraine), where 33,771 Jews were killed on 29–30 September 1941.[214][215] The Germans used the ravine for mass killings throughout the war; up to 100,000 may have been killed there.[216] Toward the Holocaust Ivanhorod Einsatzgruppen photograph: Einsatzgruppe shooting a woman and child, near Ivangorod, Ukraine, 1942[217] At first the Einsatzgruppen targeted the male Jewish intelligentsia, defined as male Jews aged 15–60 who had worked for the state and in certain professions. The commandos described them as "Bolshevist functionaries" and similar. From August 1941 they began to murder women and children too.[218] Christopher Browning reports that on 1 August 1941, the SS Cavalry Brigade passed an order to its units: "Explicit order by RF-SS [Heinrich Himmler, Reichsführer-SS]. All Jews must be shot. Drive the female Jews into the swamps."[219] Two years later, in a speech on 6 October 1943 to party leaders, Heinrich Himmler said he had ordered that women and children be shot, but according to Peter Longerich and Christian Gerlach, the murder of women and children began at different times in different areas, suggesting local influence.[220] Historians agree that there was a "gradual radicalization" between the spring and autumn of 1941 of what Longerich calls Germany's Judenpolitik, but they disagree about whether a decision—Führerentscheidung (Führer's decision)—to murder the European Jews had been made at this point.[221][q] According to Browning, writing in 2004, most historians say there was no order, before the invasion of the Soviet Union, to kill all the Soviet Jews.[223] Longerich wrote in 2010 that the gradual increase in brutality and numbers killed between July and September 1941 suggests there was "no particular order". Instead, it was a question of "a process of increasingly radical interpretations of orders".[224] Concentration and labor camps Further information: Nazi concentration camps, List of Nazi concentration camps, Extermination through labor, and Holocaust trains The "stairs of death" at the Weiner Graben quarry, Mauthausen concentration camp, Austria, 1942[225] Germany first used concentration camps as places of terror and unlawful incarceration of political opponents.[226] Large numbers of Jews were not sent there until after Kristallnacht in November 1938.[227] After war broke out in 1939, new camps were established, many outside Germany in occupied Europe.[228] Most wartime prisoners of the camps were not Germans but belonged to countries under German occupation.[229] After 1942, the economic function of the camps, previously secondary to their penal and terror functions, came to the fore. Forced labor of camp prisoners became commonplace.[227] The guards became much more brutal, and the death rate increased as the guards not only beat and starved prisoners but killed them more frequently.[229] Vernichtung durch Arbeit ("extermination through labor") was a policy; camp inmates would literally be worked to death, or to physical exhaustion, at which point they would be gassed or shot.[230] The Germans estimated the average prisoner's lifespan in a concentration camp at three months, as a result of lack of food and clothing, constant epidemics, and frequent punishments for the most minor transgressions.[231] The shifts were long and often involved exposure to dangerous materials.[232] Transportation to and between camps was often carried out in closed freight cars with little air or water, long delays and prisoners packed tightly.[233] In mid-1942 work camps began requiring newly arrived prisoners to be placed in quarantine for four weeks.[234] Prisoners wore colored triangles on their uniforms, the color denoting the reason for their incarceration. Red signified a political prisoner, Jehovah's Witnesses had purple triangles, "asocials" and criminals wore black and green, and gay men wore pink.[235] Jews wore two yellow triangles, one over another to form a six-pointed star.[236] Prisoners in Auschwitz were tattooed on arrival with an identification number.[237] Germany's allies The allies of Nazi Germany comprise the independent states that aligned themselves with the Reich. These countries were not necessarily signatories of the Tripartite Pact (Finland) and signatories of the Tripartite Pact were not necessarily allies of Germany (Slovakia and Croatia were puppet states). Thus, the 5 German allies in Europe were: Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy and Finland. All of these countries were under no formal German occupation and maintained complete domestic administrations.[238][239] Holocaust victims of Germany's allies[240] Ally of Nazi Germany Jews deported and/or killed (share of Holocaust total)  Romania 285,505 (4.6%)  Hungary 63,000 (1%)[r]  Bulgaria 11,393 (0.2%)  Finland 8 (0.0001%)  Italy None (0.0%)[s] Romania Main articles: The Holocaust in Romania, Bucharest pogrom, Iași pogrom, 1941 Odessa massacre, and Dorohoi Pogrom Further information: Axis powers Bodies being pulled out of a train carrying Romanian Jews from the Iași pogrom, July 1941 Romania ranks first among Holocaust perpetrator countries other than Germany.[241] Romanian antisemitic legislation was not an attempt to placate the Germans, but rather entirely home-grown, preceding German hegemony and Nazi Germany itself. The ascendance of Germany enabled Romania to disregard the minorities treaties that were imposed upon the country after the First World War. Antisemitic legislation in Romania was usually aimed at exploiting Jews rather than humiliating them as in Germany.[242] At the end of 1937, the government of Octavian Goga came to power, Romania thus becoming the second overtly antisemitic state in Europe.[243][244] Romania was the second country in Europe after Germany to enact antisemitic legislation, and the only one besides Germany to do so before the 1938 Anschluss.[245][246] Romania was the only country other than Germany itself that "implemented all the steps of the destruction process, from definitions to killings."[247][248] According to Dan Stone, the murder of Jews in Romania was "essentially an independent undertaking".[249] Although Jewish persecution was unsystematic within the pre-war borders of Romania, it was systematic in the Romanian occupied territories of the Soviet Union.[250] Romania implemented anti-Jewish measures in May and June 1940 as part of its efforts towards an alliance with Germany. By March 1941 all Jews had lost their jobs and had their property confiscated.[251] In June 1941 Romania joined Germany in its invasion of the Soviet Union and within the first few weeks of the invasion, almost the entire rural Jewish population of Bessarabia and Bukovina were decimated.[250][252] Thousands of Jews were murdered in January and June 1941 in the Bucharest and Iași pogroms.[253] According to a 2004 report by Tuvia Friling and others, up to 14,850 Jews were murdered during the Iași pogrom.[254] The Romanian military murdered up to 25,000 Jews during the Odessa massacre between 18 October 1941 and March 1942, assisted by gendarmes and the police.[255] Within the city of Odessa, Jews were segregated to ghettos where they were later deported en masse, with the majority dying from disease, hunger and murder.[256] In July 1941, Mihai Antonescu, Romania's deputy prime minister, said it was time for "total ethnic purification, for a revision of national life, and for purging our race of all those elements which are foreign to its soul, which have grown like mistletoes and darken our future."[257] Romania set up concentration camps in Transnistria, reportedly extremely brutal, where 154,000–170,000 Jews were deported from 1941 to 1943.[258] In the Odessa and Pervomaisk regions alone, Romanian authorities were responsible for the death of over 150,000 Jews.[250] Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy and Finland Further information: The Holocaust in Bulgaria, in Hungary, in Italy, Italian Libya, and Finland Ľudové noviny, Slovakian propaganda office newspaper, 21 September 1941: "We've dealt with the Jews! The strictest anti-Jewish laws are Slovakian"[t] Budapest, Hungary, October 1944 Bulgaria introduced anti-Jewish measures between 1940 and 1943 (requirement to wear a yellow star, restrictions on owning telephones or radios, and so on).[259] It annexed Thrace and Macedonia, and in February 1943 agreed to a demand from Germany that it deport 20,000 Jews to the Treblinka extermination camp. All 11,000 Jews from the annexed territories were sent to be murdered, and plans were made to deport 6,000–8,000 Bulgarian Jews from Sofia to meet the quota.[260] When this became public, the Orthodox Church and many Bulgarians protested, and King Boris III canceled the plans.[261] Instead, Jews native to Bulgaria were sent to the provinces.[260] Although Hungary expelled Jews who were not citizens from its newly annexed lands in 1941, it did not deport most of its Jews[262] until the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944. Between 15 May and early July 1944, 437,000 Jews were deported, mostly to Auschwitz, where most of them were murdered by gas; there were four transports a day, each carrying 3,000 people.[263] In Budapest in October and November 1944, the Hungarian Arrow Cross forced 50,000 Jews to march to the Austrian border as part of a deal with Germany to supply forced labor. So many died that the marches were stopped.[264] Italy introduced antisemitic measures, but there was less antisemitism there than in Germany, and Italian-occupied countries were generally safer for Jews than those occupied by Germany.[265] Most Italian Jews, over 40,000, survived the Holocaust.[266] In September 1943, Germany occupied the northern and central areas of Italy and established a fascist puppet state, the Italian Social Republic or Salò Republic.[267] Officers from RSHA IV B4, a Gestapo unit, began deporting Jews to Auschwitz-Birkenau.[268] The first group of 1,034 Jews arrived from Rome on 23 October 1943; 839 were murdered by gas.[269] Around 8,500 Jews were deported in all.[266] Several forced labor camps for Jews were established in Italian-controlled Libya; almost 2,600 Libyan Jews were sent to camps, where 562 were murdered.[270] In Finland, the government was pressured in 1942 to hand over its 150–200 non-Finnish Jews to Germany. After opposition from both the government and public, eight non-Finnish Jews were deported in late 1942; only one survived the war.[271] Other Slovakia (German client[272]) Further information: The Holocaust in Slovakia Stone writes that Slovakia, led by Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso (president of the Slovak State, 1939–1945), was "one of the most loyal of the collaborationist regimes". It deported 7,500 Jews in 1938 on its own initiative; introduced anti-Jewish measures in 1940; and by the autumn of 1942 had deported around 60,000 Jews to Poland. Another 2,396 were deported and 2,257 killed that autumn during an uprising, and 13,500 were deported between October 1944 and March 1945.[273] According to Stone, "the Holocaust in Slovakia was far more than a German project, even if it was carried out in the context of a 'puppet' state."[274] Japan Further information: Japan and the Holocaust Japan had little antisemitism in its society and did not persecute Jews in most of the territories it controlled. Jews in Shanghai were confined, but despite German pressure they were not killed.[275] Final Solution Main article: Final Solution Pearl Harbor, Germany declares war on the United States Further information: Hitler's prophecy and Reich Chancellery meeting of 12 December 1941 11 December 1941: Adolf Hitler speaking at the Kroll Opera House to Reichstag members about war in the Pacific.[u] On 7 December 1941, Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor, an American naval base in Honolulu, Hawaii, killing 2,403 Americans. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan, and on 11 December, Germany declared war on the United States.[276] According to Deborah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Hitler had trusted American Jews, whom he assumed were all-powerful, to keep the United States out of the war in the interests of German Jews. When America declared war, he blamed the Jews.[277] Nearly three years earlier, on 30 January 1939, Hitler had told the Reichstag: "if the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will be not the Bolshevising of the earth, and thus a victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!"[278] In the view of Christian Gerlach, Hitler "announced his decision in principle" to annihilate the Jews on or around 12 December 1941, one day after his declaration of war. On that day, Hitler gave a speech in his apartment at the Reich Chancellery to senior Nazi Party leaders: the Reichsleiter and the Gauleiter.[279] The following day, Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda, noted in his diary: Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it.[v] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States Christopher Browning argues that Hitler gave no order during the Reich Chancellery meeting but made clear that he had intended his 1939 warning to the Jews to be taken literally, and he signaled to party leaders that they could give appropriate orders to others.[281] According to Gerlach, an unidentified former German Sicherheitsdienst officer wrote in a report in 1944, after defecting to Switzerland: "After America entered the war, the annihilation (Ausrottung) of all European Jews was initiated on the Führer's order."[282] Four days after Hitler's meeting with party leaders, Hans Frank, Governor-General of the General Government area of occupied Poland, who was at the meeting, spoke to district governors: "We must put an end to the Jews ... I will in principle proceed only on the assumption that they will disappear. They must go."[283][w] On 18 December 1941, Hitler and Himmler held a meeting to which Himmler referred in his appointment book as "Juden frage | als Partisanen auszurotten" ("Jewish question / to be exterminated as partisans"). Browning interprets this as a meeting to discuss how to justify and speak about the killing.[285] Wannsee Conference (20 January 1942) Main article: Wannsee Conference Am Großen Wannsee 56–58, Berlin SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA), convened what became known as the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 at Am Großen Wannsee 56–58, a villa in Berlin's Wannsee suburb.[286] The meeting had been scheduled for 9 December 1941, and invitations had been sent between 29 November and 1 December,[287] but on 8 December it had been postponed indefinitely, probably because of Pearl Harbor.[288] On 8 January, Heydrich sent out notes again, this time suggesting 20 January.[289] The 15 men present at Wannsee included Heydrich, SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann, head of Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4 ("Jewish affairs"); SS Major General Heinrich Müller, head of RSHA Department IV (the Gestapo); and other SS and party leaders.[x] According to Browning, eight of the 15 had doctorates: "Thus it was not a dimwitted crowd unable to grasp what was going to be said to them."[291] Thirty copies of the minutes, the Wannsee Protocol, were made. Copy no. 16 was found by American prosecutors in March 1947 in a German Foreign Office folder.[292] Written by Eichmann and stamped "Top Secret", the minutes were written in "euphemistic language" on Heydrich's instructions, according to Eichmann's later testimony.[293] Dining room in which the conference took place Pages from the Wannsee Protocol listing the number of Jews in every European country[294][y] Discussing plans for a "final solution to the Jewish question" ("Endlösung der Judenfrage"), and a "final solution to the Jewish question in Europe" ("Endlösung der europäischen Judenfrage"),[294] the conference was held to coordinate efforts and policies ("Parallelisierung der Linienführung"), and to ensure that authority rested with Heydrich. There was discussion about whether to include the German Mischlinge (half-Jews).[295] Heydrich told the meeting: "Another possible solution of the problem has now taken the place of emigration, i.e. the evacuation of the Jews to the East, provided that the Fuehrer gives the appropriate approval in advance."[294] He continued: Under proper guidance, in the course of the Final Solution, the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in the East. Able-bodied Jews, separated according to sex, will be taken in large work columns to these areas for work on roads, in the course of which action doubtless a large portion will be eliminated by natural causes. The possible final remnant will, since it will undoubtedly consist of the most resistant portion, have to be treated accordingly because it is the product of natural selection and would, if released, act as the seed of a new Jewish revival. (See the experience of history.) In the course of the practical execution of the Final Solution, Europe will be combed through from west to east. Germany proper, including the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, will have to be handled first due to the housing problem and additional social and political necessities. The evacuated Jews will first be sent, group by group, to so-called transit ghettos, from which they will be transported to the East.[294] The evacuations were regarded as provisional ("Ausweichmöglichkeiten").[296][z] The final solution would encompass the 11 million Jews living in territories controlled by Germany and elsewhere in Europe, including Britain, Ireland, Switzerland, Turkey, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and Hungary, "dependent on military developments".[296] According to Longerich, "the Jews were to be annihilated by a combination of forced labour and mass murder."[298] Extermination camps Main article: Extermination camp At the end of 1941 in occupied Poland, the Germans began building additional camps or expanding existing ones. Auschwitz, for example, was expanded in October 1941 by building Auschwitz II-Birkenau a few kilometers away.[4] By the spring or summer of 1942, gas chambers had been installed in these new facilities, except for Chełmno, which used gas vans. Overview of the Nazi concentration camps in Poland Camp Location (occupied Poland) Deaths Gas chambers Gas vans Construction began Mass gassing began Source Auschwitz II[157] Brzezinka 1,082,000 (all Auschwitz camps; includes 960,000 Jews)[aa] 4[ab] Oct 1941 (built as POW camp)[302] c. 20 Mar 1942[303][ac] Bełżec[158] Bełżec 600,000[158] No 1 November 1941[304] 17 March 1942[304] Chełmno[159] Chełmno nad Nerem 320,000[159] No 8 December 1941[305] Majdanek[160] Lublin 78,000[306] No 7 October 1941 (built as POW camp)[307] Oct 1942[308] Sobibór[161] Sobibór 250,000[161] No Feb 1942[309] May 1942[309] Treblinka[162] Treblinka 870,000[162] No May 1942[310] 23 July 1942[310] Total 3,218,000 Other camps sometimes described as extermination camps include Maly Trostinets near Minsk in the occupied Soviet Union, where 65,000 are thought to have been murdered, mostly by shooting but also in gas vans;[311] Mauthausen in Austria;[312] Stutthof, near Gdańsk, Poland;[313] and Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück in Germany.[314] Gas vans Further information: Gas van Concentration camps, extermination camps, and ghettos, 1939–1945 German extermination and concentration camps built in occupied Poland. Auschwitz II gatehouse, shot from inside the camp; the trains delivered victims very close to the gas chambers. Women on their way to the gas chamber, near Crematorium V, Auschwitz II, August 1944. The Polish resistance reportedly smuggled the film, known as the Sonderkommando photographs, out of the camp in a toothpaste tube.[315] Chełmno, with gas vans only, had its roots in the Aktion T4 euthanasia program.[316] In December 1939 and January 1940, gas vans equipped with gas cylinders and a sealed compartment had been used to kill disabled people in occupied Poland.[317] As the mass shootings continued in Russia, Himmler and his subordinates in the field feared that the murders were causing psychological problems for the SS,[318] and began searching for more efficient methods. In December 1941, similar vans, using exhaust fumes rather than bottled gas, were introduced into the camp at Chełmno,[304] Victims were asphyxiated while being driven to prepared burial pits in the nearby forests.[319] The vans were also used in the occupied Soviet Union, for example in smaller clearing actions in the Minsk ghetto,[320] and in Yugoslavia.[321] Apparently, as with the mass shootings, the vans caused emotional problems for the operators, and the small number of victims the vans could handle made them ineffective.[322] Gas chambers Further information: Gas chamber and Sonderaktion 1005 Christian Gerlach writes that over three million Jews were murdered in 1942, the year that "marked the peak" of the mass murder.[323] At least 1.4 million of these were in the General Government area of Poland.[324] Victims usually arrived at the extermination camps by freight train.[325] Almost all arrivals at Bełżec, Sobibór and Treblinka were sent directly to the gas chambers,[326] with individuals occasionally selected to replace dead workers.[327] At Auschwitz, about 20 percent of Jews were selected to work.[328] Those selected for death at all camps were told to undress and hand their valuables to camp workers.[39] They were then herded naked into the gas chambers. To prevent panic, they were told the gas chambers were showers or delousing chambers.[329] At Auschwitz, after the chambers were filled, the doors were shut and pellets of Zyklon-B were dropped into the chambers through vents,[330] releasing toxic prussic acid.[331] Those inside were murdered within 20 minutes; the speed of death depended on how close the inmate was standing to a gas vent, according to the commandant Rudolf Höss, who estimated that about one-third of the victims were killed immediately.[332] Johann Kremer, an SS doctor who oversaw the gassings, testified that: "Shouting and screaming of the victims could be heard through the opening and it was clear that they fought for their lives."[333] The gas was then pumped out, and the Sonderkommando—work groups of mostly Jewish prisoners—carried out the bodies, extracted gold fillings, cut off women's hair, and removed jewelry, artificial limbs and glasses.[334] At Auschwitz, the bodies were at first buried in deep pits and covered with lime, but between September and November 1942, on the orders of Himmler, 100,000 bodies were dug up and burned. In early 1943, new gas chambers and crematoria were built to accommodate the numbers.[335] Bełżec, Sobibór and Treblinka became known as the Operation Reinhard camps, named after the German plan to murder the Jews in the General Government area of occupied Poland.[336] Between March 1942 and November 1943, around 1,526,500 Jews were murdered in these three camps in gas chambers using carbon monoxide from the exhaust fumes of stationary diesel engines.[4] Gold fillings were pulled from the corpses before burial, but unlike in Auschwitz the women's hair was cut before death. At Treblinka, to calm the victims, the arrival platform was made to look like a train station, complete with a fake clock.[337] Most of the victims at these three camps were buried in pits at first. From mid-1942, as part of Sonderaktion 1005, prisoners at Auschwitz, Chelmno, Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka were forced to exhume and burn bodies that had been buried, in part to hide the evidence, and in part because of the terrible smell pervading the camps and a fear that the drinking water would become polluted.[338] The corpses—700,000 in Treblinka—were burned on wood in open fire pits and the remaining bones crushed into powder.[339] Collaboration Main articles: Responsibility for the Holocaust § Other states, and Collaboration with the Axis Powers Although the Holocaust was planned and directed by Germans, the Nazi regime found willing collaborators in other countries (e.g. the Ustashe of Croatia), or forced others into participation.[340] This included individual collaboration as well as state collaboration. According to Dan Stone the Holocaust was a pan-European phenomenon, a series of "Holocausts" impossible to conduct without local collaborators and Germany's allies.[341] Stone writes that "many European states, under the extreme circumstances of World War II, took upon themselves the task of solving the 'Jewish question' in their own way."[342] Resistance Jewish resistance Main article: Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe Stroop Report photograph: captured insurgents from the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, May 1943; the woman on the right is Hasia Szylgold-Szpiro.[343] Warsaw Ghetto boy: another Stroop report image of the aftermath of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; the SS man on the right with the gun is Josef Blösche. There was almost no resistance in the ghettos in Poland until the end of 1942.[344] Raul Hilberg accounted for this by evoking the history of Jewish persecution: compliance might avoid inflaming the situation until the onslaught abated.[345] Timothy Snyder noted that it was only during the three months after the deportations of July–September 1942 that agreement on the need for armed resistance was reached.[346] Several resistance groups were formed, such as the Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) and Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) in the Warsaw Ghetto and the United Partisan Organization in Vilna.[347] Over 100 revolts and uprisings occurred in at least 19 ghettos and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. The best known is the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April 1943, when the Germans arrived to send the remaining inhabitants to extermination camps. Forced to retreat on 19 April from the ŻOB and ŻZW fighters, they returned later that day under the command of SS General Jürgen Stroop (author of the Stroop Report about the uprising).[348] Around 1,000 poorly armed fighters held the SS at bay for four weeks.[349] Polish and Jewish accounts stated that hundreds or thousands of Germans had been killed,[350] while the Germans reported 16 dead.[351] The Germans said that 14,000 Jews had been killed—7000 during the fighting and 7000 sent to Treblinka[352]—and between 53,000[353] and 56,000 deported.[351] According to Gwardia Ludowa, a Polish resistance newspaper, in May 1943: From behind the screen of smoke and fire, in which the ranks of fighting Jewish partisans are dying, the legend of the exceptional fighting qualities of the Germans is being undermined. ... The fighting Jews have won for us what is most important: the truth about the weakness of the Germans.[354] During a revolt in Treblinka on 2 August 1943, inmates killed five or six guards and set fire to camp buildings; several managed to escape.[355] In the Białystok Ghetto on 16 August, Jewish insurgents fought for five days when the Germans announced mass deportations.[356] On 14 October, Jewish prisoners in Sobibór attempted an escape, killing 11 SS officers, as well as two or three Ukrainian and Volksdeutsche guards. According to Yitzhak Arad, this was the highest number of SS officers killed in a single revolt.[357] Around 300 inmates escaped (out of 600 in the main camp), but 100 were recaptured and shot.[358] On 7 October 1944, 300 Jewish members, mostly Greek or Hungarian, of the Sonderkommando at Auschwitz learned they were about to be killed, and staged an uprising, blowing up crematorium IV.[359] Three SS officers were killed.[360] The Sonderkommando at crematorium II threw their Oberkapo into an oven when they heard the commotion, believing that a camp uprising had begun.[361] By the time the SS had regained control, 451 members of the Sonderkommando were dead; 212 survived.[362] Estimates of Jewish participation in partisan units throughout Europe range from 20,000 to 100,000.[363] In the occupied Polish and Soviet territories, thousands of Jews fled into the swamps or forests and joined the partisans,[364] although the partisan movements did not always welcome them.[365] An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 joined the Soviet partisan movement.[366] One of the famous Jewish groups was the Bielski partisans in Belarus, led by the Bielski brothers.[364] Jews also joined Polish forces, including the Home Army. According to Timothy Snyder, "more Jews fought in the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944 than in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 1943."[367][ad] Polish resistance and flow of information Main article: Polish resistance movement in World War II Captain Witold Pilecki The Polish government-in-exile in London received information about the extermination camp at Auschwitz from the Polish leadership in Warsaw from 1940 onwards, and by August 1942 there was "a continual flow of information to and from Poland", according to Michael Fleming.[373] This was in large measure thanks to Captain Witold Pilecki of the Polish Home Army, who was sent to the camp in September 1940 after allowing himself to be arrested in Warsaw. An inmate until he escaped in April 1943, his mission was to set up a resistance movement (ZOW), prepare to take over the camp, and smuggle out information.[374] On 6 January 1942, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov, sent out diplomatic notes about German atrocities, based on reports about mass graves and bodies surfacing in areas the Red Army had liberated, as well as witness reports from German-occupied areas.[375] According to Fleming, in May and June 1942, London was told about the extermination camps at Chełmno, Sobibór, and Bełzėc.[376] Szlama Ber Winer escaped from Chełmno in February and passed information to the Oneg Shabbat group in the Warsaw Ghetto;[159] his report was known by his pseudonym as the Grojanowski Report.[377] Also in 1942, Jan Karski sent information to the Allies after being smuggled into the Warsaw Ghetto twice.[378] By c. July 1942, Polish leaders in Warsaw had learned about the mass killing of Jews in Auschwitz.[ae] The Polish Interior Ministry prepared a report, Sprawozdanie 6/42,[380] which said at the end: There are different methods of execution. People are shot by firing squads, killed by an "air hammer" /Hammerluft/, and poisoned by gas in special gas chambers. Prisoners condemned to death by the Gestapo are murdered by the first two methods. The third method, the gas chamber, is employed for those who are ill or incapable of work and those who have been brought in transports especially for the purpose /Soviet prisoners of war, and, recently Jews/.[381] The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland by the Polish government-in-exile, addressed to the United Nations, 10 December 1942 Sprawozdanie 6/42 had reached London by 12 November 1942, where it was translated into English to become part of a 108-page report, "Report on Conditions in Poland", on which the date 27 November 1942 was handwritten. This report was sent to the Polish Embassy in Washington, D.C.[382] On 10 December 1942, the Polish Foreign Affairs Minister, Edward Raczyński, addressed the fledgling United Nations on the killings; the address was distributed with the title The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland. He told them about the use of poison gas; about Treblinka, Bełżec and Sobibór; that the Polish underground had referred to them as extermination camps; and that tens of thousands of Jews had been killed in Bełżec in March and April 1942.[383] One in three Jews in Poland were already dead, he estimated, from a population of 3,130,000.[384] Raczyński's address was covered by the New York Times and The Times of London. Winston Churchill received it, and Anthony Eden presented it to the British cabinet. On 17 December 1942, 11 Allies issued the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations condemning the "bestial policy of cold-blooded extermination".[385] The British and American governments were reluctant to publicize the intelligence they had received. A BBC Hungarian Service memo, written by Carlile Macartney, said in 1942: "We shouldn't mention the Jews at all." The British government's view was that the Hungarian people's antisemitism would make them distrust the Allies if Allied broadcasts focused on the Jews.[386] In the United States, where antisemitism and isolationism were common, the government similarly feared turning the war into one about the Jews.[387] Although governments and the German public appear to have understood what was happening to the Jews, it seems the Jews themselves did not. According to Saul Friedländer, "[t]estimonies left by Jews from all over occupied Europe indicate that, in contradistinction to vast segments of surrounding society, the victims did not understand what was ultimately in store for them." In Western Europe, he writes, Jewish communities failed to piece the information together, while in Eastern Europe they could not accept that the stories they had heard from elsewhere would end up applying to them too.[388] End of the war The Holocaust in Hungary Main article: The Holocaust in Hungary Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia on the selection ramp at Auschwitz II, c. May 1944. Women and children are lined up on one side, men on the other, waiting for the SS to determine who was fit for work. About 20 percent at Auschwitz were selected for work and the rest gassed.[389] By 1943 it was evident to the leadership of the armed forces that Germany was losing the war.[390] Rail shipments of Jews were still arriving regularly from western and southern Europe at the extermination camps.[391] Shipments of Jews had priority on the German railways over anything but the army's needs, and continued even in the face of the increasingly dire military situation at the end of 1942.[392] Army leaders and economic managers complained about this diversion of resources and the killing of skilled Jewish workers,[393] but Nazi leaders rated ideological imperatives above economic considerations.[394] The mass murder reached a "frenetic" pace in 1944[395] when Auschwitz gassed nearly 500,000 people.[396] On 19 March 1944, Hitler ordered the military occupation of Hungary and dispatched Adolf Eichmann to supervise the deportation of its Jews.[397] Between 15 May and 9 July, 440,000 Jews were deported from Hungary to Auschwitz II-Birkenau, almost all sent directly to the gas chambers.[398] A month before the deportations began, Eichmann offered through an intermediary, Joel Brand, to exchange one million Jews for 10,000 trucks from the Allies, which the Germans would agree not to use on the Western front.[399] The British thwarted the proposal by leaking it. The Times called it "a new level of fantasy and self-deception".[400] Publication of the Vrba–Wetzler report halted Hungarian government cooperation with Jewish deportations for several months and sparked international interventions that saved tens of thousands of lives. Death marches Main article: Death marches (Holocaust) As the Soviet armed forces advanced, the SS closed down the camps in eastern Poland and tried to conceal what had happened. The gas chambers were dismantled, the crematoria dynamited, and the mass graves dug up and corpses cremated.[401] From January to April 1945, the SS sent inmates westward on death marches to camps in Germany and Austria.[402][403] In January 1945, the Germans held records of 714,000 inmates in concentration camps; by May, 250,000 (35 percent) had died during these marches.[404] Already sick after exposure to violence and starvation, they were marched to train stations and transported for days without food or shelter in open freight cars, then forced to march again at the other end to the new camp. Some went by truck or wagons; others were marched the entire distance. Those who lagged behind or fell were shot.[405] Liberation Main articles: Death of Adolf Hitler, German Instrument of Surrender, Victory in Europe Day, and End of World War II in Europe A mass grave at Bergen-Belsen after the camp's liberation, April 1945 The first major camp encountered by Allied troops, Majdanek, was discovered by the advancing Soviets, along with its gas chambers, on 25 July 1944.[406] Treblinka, Sobibór, and Bełżec were never liberated, but were destroyed by the Germans in 1943.[407] On 17 January 1945, 58,000 Auschwitz inmates were sent on a death march westwards;[408] when the camp was liberated by the Soviets on 27 January, they found just 7,000 inmates in the three main camps and 500 in subcamps.[409] Buchenwald was liberated by the Americans on 11 April;[410] Bergen-Belsen by the British on 15 April;[411] Dachau by the Americans on 29 April;[412] Ravensbrück by the Soviets on 30 April;[413] and Mauthausen by the Americans on 5 May.[414] The Red Cross took control of Theresienstadt on 3 May, days before the Soviets arrived.[415] The British 11th Armoured Division found around 60,000 prisoners (90 percent Jews) when they liberated Bergen-Belsen,[411][416] as well as 13,000 unburied corpses; another 10,000 people died from typhus or malnutrition over the following weeks.[417] Death toll Main articles: Holocaust victims and Children in the Holocaust Holocaust death tolls from David M. Crowe[418] Country Jews (pre-war) Holocaust deaths Albania 200–591 Austria 185,000–192,000 48,767–65,000 Belgium 55,000–70,000 24,000–29,902 Bohemia and Moravia 92,000–118,310 78,150–80,000 Bulgaria 50,000 7,335 Denmark 7,500–7,800 60–116 Estonia 4,500 1,500–2,000 France 330,000–350,000 73,320–90,000 Germany (1933) 523,000–525,000 130,000–160,000 Greece 77,380 58,443–67,000 Hungary 725,000–825,000 200,000–569,000 Italy 42,500–44,500 5,596–9,000 Latvia 91,500–95,000 60,000–85,000 Lithuania 168,000 130,000–200,000 Luxembourg 3,800 720–2,000 Netherlands 140,000 98,800–120,000 Norway 1,700–1,800 758–1,000 Poland 3,300,000–3,500,000 2,700,000–3,000,000 Romania (1930) 756,000 270,000–287,000 Slovakia 136,000 68,000–100,000 Soviet Union 3,020,000 700,000–2,500,000 Yugoslavia 78,000–82,242 51,400–67,438 The Jews killed represented around one third of world Jewry[419] and about two-thirds of European Jewry, based on a pre-war figure of 9.7 million Jews in Europe.[420] Most heavily concentrated in the east, the pre-war Jewish population in Europe was 3.5 million in Poland; 3 million in the Soviet Union; nearly 800,000 in Romania, and 700,000 in Hungary. Germany had over 500,000.[418] The death camps in occupied Poland accounted for half the Jews murdered. At Auschwitz, the number of Jewish victims was 960,000;[421] Treblinka 870,000;[162] Bełżec 600,000;[158] Chełmno 320,000;[159] Sobibór 250,000;[161] and Majdanek 79,000.[160] The most commonly cited death toll is the six million given by Adolf Eichmann to SS member Wilhelm Höttl, who signed an affidavit mentioning this figure in 1945.[422] Historians' estimates range from 4,204,000 to 7,000,000.[423] According to Yad Vashem, "[a]ll the serious research" confirms that between five and six million Jews were murdered.[c] Death rates were heavily dependent on the survival of European states willing to protect their Jewish citizens.[425] In countries allied to Germany, the state's control over its citizens, including the Jews, was seen as a matter of sovereignty. The continuous presence of state institutions thereby prevented the Jewish communities' complete destruction.[425] In occupied countries, the survival of the state was likewise correlated with lower Jewish death rates: 75 percent of Jews survived in France and 99 percent in Denmark, but 75 percent died in the Netherlands, as did 99 percent of Jews who were in Estonia when the Germans arrived—the Nazis declared Estonia Judenfrei ("free of Jews") in January 1942 at the Wannsee Conference.[426] The survival of Jews in countries where states were not destroyed demonstrates the "crucial" influence of non-Germans (governments and others), according to Christian Gerlach.[427] Jews who lived where pre-war statehood was destroyed (Poland and the Baltic states) or displaced (western USSR) were at the mercy of sometimes-hostile local populations, in addition to the Germans. Almost all Jews in German-occupied Poland, the Baltic states and the USSR were murdered, with a 5 percent chance of survival on average.[425] Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were murdered.[428] Other victims of Nazi persecution Soviet civilians and POWs Main article: German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war Heinrich Himmler inspects a POW camp in Russia, c. 1941. The Nazis regarded the Slavs as Untermenschen (non-Aryan inferior people).[33] German troops destroyed villages throughout the Soviet Union,[429] rounded up civilians for forced labor in Germany, and caused famine by taking foodstuffs.[430] In Belarus, Germany imposed a regime that deported 380,000 people for slave labor, murdered 1.6 million, and destroyed at least 5,295 settlements.[431] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum estimates that 3.3 million of 5.7 million Soviet POWs died in German custody.[432] The death rates decreased when the POWs were needed to help the German war effort; by 1943, half a million had been deployed as slave labor.[433] A 1995 paper published by M. V. Filimoshin, an associate of the Russian Defense Ministry, put the civilian death toll in the regions occupied by Germany at 13.7 million. Filimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his figures and used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when referring to deaths of 7.4 million civilians caused by direct, intentional violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major portion.[434][page needed] Filimoshin estimated that civilian forced laborer deaths in Germany totaled 2.1 million. Germany had a policy of forced confiscation of food that resulted in famine deaths of an estimated 6% of the population, or 4.1 million.[435] Russian government sources currently cite these civilian casualty figures in their official statements.[436] Russian Academy of Science estimate Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence 7,420,135[af] Deaths of forced laborers in Germany 2,164,313[435] Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions 4,100,000[ag] Total 13,684,448 Ethnic Poles Main article: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation From the start of the war against Poland, Germany intended to realize Adolf Hitler's plan, set out in his book Mein Kampf, to acquire "living space" (Lebensraum) in the east for massive settlement of German colonists.[438][439] Hitler's plan combined classic imperialism with Nazi racial ideology.[440] While the long-term goal of Nazi Germany was removal of Jews from occupied Poland, in the initial months of occupation the SS predominantly directed physical violence towards ethnic Poles, arresting and executing educated elites in an attempt to prevent the development of organized resistance.[441] On 7 September 1939, Reinhard Heydrich stated that all Polish nobles, clergy, and Jews were to be murdered.[442] On 12 September, Wilhelm Keitel added Poland's intelligentsia to the list. On 15 March 1940, SS chief Heinrich Himmler stated: "All Polish specialists will be exploited in our military-industrial complex. Later, all Poles will disappear from this world. It is imperative that the great German nation consider the elimination of all Polish people as its chief task."[443] At the end of 1940, Hitler confirmed the plan to liquidate "all leading elements in Poland".[442] After Germany lost the war, the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg Trials and Poland's Supreme National Tribunal concluded that the aim of German policies in Poland – the extermination of Poles and Jews – was a genocide in biological terms.[444][445] An estimated 1.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens were killed by Germans during the war.[446] At least 200,000 died in concentration camps, around 146,000 in Auschwitz.[447] Others died in massacres or in revolts such as the Warsaw Uprising, where 150,000–200,000 were killed.[448] Roma Main article: Romani genocide Romani people being deported from Asperg, Germany, 22 May 1940 Historians estimate that Germany and its allies killed between 250,000 and 500,000 Roma, around 25–50 percent of the community in Europe.[449][450] Research cited by Ian Hancock suggests the pre-war Romani population of Europe may have been much higher, resulting in estimates of up to 1.5 million Roma deaths.[451] Unlike Jews, who were predominantly transported to and murdered in mass extermination camps, Romanies outside the Reich were mostly massacred in smaller groups of several hundred or less, in many different places; together with the exclusion of Romanies from most contemporary European censuses, this makes it impossible for historians to determine the precise number of Romani victims in Poland, Yugoslavia, White Ruthenia and Ukraine, the regions in which most are thought to have been killed.[452] Robert Ritter, head of Germany's Racial Hygiene and Demographic Biology Research Unit, called Roma "a peculiar form of the human species who are incapable of development and came about by mutation".[453] In May 1942, they were placed under similar laws to the Jews, and in December Himmler ordered that they be sent to Auschwitz, unless they had served in the Wehrmacht.[454] He adjusted the order on 15 November 1943 to allow "sedentary Gypsies and part-Gypsies" in the occupied Soviet areas to be viewed as citizens.[455] In Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, the Roma were subject to restrictions on movement and confinement to collection camps,[456] while in Eastern Europe they were sent to concentration camps, where large numbers were murdered.[457] Political and religious opponents Main articles: German resistance to Nazism and Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany Part of a series on Antisemitism Yellowbadge logo.svg Part of Jewish history and discrimination HistoryTimelineReference Definitions Manifestations Antisemitic tropes Antisemitic publications Antisemitism on the Internet Prominent figures Persecution Rhineland massacresBlack Death persecutionsBoycottsExpulsionsJewish quarter Ghettos in EuropeMellahThe HolocaustJewish hatJewish quotaJudensauMartyrdom in JudaismNuremberg LawsPale of SettlementPogroms Russian EmpireRussian Civil WarRefuseniksSegregationSpanish InquisitionYellow badge Opposition  Category vte German communists, socialists and trade unionists were among the first to be sent to concentration camps.[458] Nacht und Nebel ("Night and Fog"), a directive issued by Hitler on 7 December 1941, resulted in the disappearance, torture and death of political activists throughout German-occupied Europe; the courts had sentenced 1,793 people to death by April 1944, according to Jack Fischel.[459] Because they refused to pledge allegiance to the Nazi party or serve in the military, Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps, where they were given the option of renouncing their faith and submitting to the state's authority.[460] Between 2,700 and 3,300 were sent to the camps, where 1,400 died.[461] According to German historian Detlef Garbe, "no other religious movement resisted the pressure to conform to National Socialism with comparable unanimity and steadfastness."[462] Homosexuals Main articles: Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and Lesbians in Nazi Germany Around 100,000 gay men were arrested in Germany and 50,000 jailed between 1933 and 1945; 5,000–15,000 are thought to have been sent to concentration camps.[463] Hundreds were castrated, sometimes "voluntarily" to avoid criminal sentences.[464] In 1936, Himmler created the Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion.[465] The police closed gay bars and shut down gay publications.[463] Lesbians were left relatively unaffected; the Nazis saw them as "asocials", rather than sexual deviants.[466] However, where sexuality intersected with other identities, lesbianism could be used as an additional reason for persecution.[467][468][469] In some concentration camps brothels were established to punish lesbian women by raping them. Sex with Jewish women was forbidden on grounds of racial disgrace by the Nazis, but rape was not considered a racial disgrace in concentration camps.[470] Afro-Germans Main article: Persecution of black people in Nazi Germany There were 5,000–25,000 Afro-Germans in Germany when the Nazis came to power.[471] Although blacks in Germany and German-occupied Europe were subjected to incarceration, sterilization and murder, there was no program to kill them as a group.[472] Aftermath and legacy Main article: Aftermath of the Holocaust Trials Further information: Category:Holocaust trials Defendants in the dock at the Nuremberg trials, 1945–1946 During the International Military Tribunal, 21 Nazi leaders were tried, primarily for waging wars of aggression, but the trial also exposed the systematic murder of European Jews.[473] Twelve additional trials before American courts from 1946 to 1949 tried another 177 defendants; in these trials, the Holocaust took center stage.[474] These trials were ineffective in their goal of re-educating Germans; by 1948, only 30 percent of Germans believed Nazism was a bad idea.[475] A consensus in West German society demanded amnesty and release of the convicted prisoners.[476] West Germany initially tried few ex-Nazis, but after the 1958 Ulm Einsatzkommando trial, the government set up a dedicated agency.[477] Other trials of Nazis and collaborators took place in Western and Eastern Europe. In 1960 Mossad agents captured Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel to stand trial on 15 charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against the Jewish people. He was convicted in December 1961 and executed in June 1962. Eichmann's trial revived interest in war criminals and the Holocaust in general.[478] Reparations Main articles: Wiedergutmachung and Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany The government of Israel requested $1.5 billion from the Federal Republic of Germany in March 1951 to finance the rehabilitation of 500,000 Jewish survivors, arguing that Germany had stolen $6 billion from the European Jews. Israelis were divided about the idea of taking money from Germany. The Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany (known as the Claims Conference) was opened in New York, and after negotiations the claim was reduced to $845 million.[479][480] West Germany allocated another $125 million for reparations in 1988. Companies such as BMW, Deutsche Bank, Ford, Opel, Siemens, and Volkswagen faced lawsuits for their use of forced labor during the war.[479] In response, Germany set up the "Remembrance, Responsibility and Future" Foundation in 2000, which paid €4.45 billion to former slave laborers (up to €7,670 each).[481] In 2013 Germany agreed to provide €772 million to fund nursing care, social services, and medication for 56,000 Holocaust survivors around the world.[482] The French state-owned railway company, the SNCF, agreed in 2014 to pay $60 million to Jewish-American survivors, around $100,000 each, for its role in the transport of 76,000 Jews from France to extermination camps between 1942 and 1944.[483][484] Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, 2016 Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, 2016   Stolpersteine, Berlin-Mitte, 2011 Stolpersteine, Berlin-Mitte, 2011 Remembrance and historiography Main articles: Holocaust studies, Holocaust uniqueness debate, and Holocaust memorial days Further information: Category:Holocaust commemoration, Category:Holocaust historiography, and Photography of the Holocaust The tendency to see the Holocaust as a unique event was influential in early Holocaust scholarship, but came under contestation,[485] and eventually mainstream Holocaust scholarship came to reject explicit claims of uniqueness, while recognizing differences between the Holocaust and other genocides.[486] In popular culture, Hitler is a hegemonic historical analogy for evil[487] and Nazi comparisons are common.[488] Yom HaShoah became Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Day in 1951.[489] At least 37 countries and the United Nations have similar observances. See also Hunger Plan Explanatory notes  Hebrew: הַשׁוֹאָה‎, HaShoah (haŠōʾā) 'the catastrophe'  Matt Brosnan (Imperial War Museum, 2018): "The Holocaust was the systematic murder of Europe's Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators during the Second World War."[21] Jack R. Fischel (Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust, 2020): "The Holocaust refers to the Nazi objective of annihilating every Jewish man, woman, and child who fell under their control. By the end of World War II, approximately six million Jews had been murdered by the Nazis and their collaborators."[13] Raul Hilberg (The Destruction of the European Jews, 2003 [1961]): "Little by little, some documents were gathered and books were written, and after about two decades the annihilation of the Jews was given a name: Holocaust."[22] Ronnie S. Landau (The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning, 1992): "The Holocaust involved the deliberate, systematic murder of approximately 6 million Jews in Nazi-dominated Europe between 1941 and 1945."[2] Timothy D. Snyder (Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin, 2010): "In this book, Holocaust means the murder of the Jews in Europe, as carried out by the Germans by guns and gas between 1941 and 1945."[23] Dan Stone (Histories of the Holocaust, 2010): "'Holocaust' ... refers to the genocide of the Jews, which by no means excludes an understanding that other groups—notably Romanies and Slavs—were victims of genocide."[24] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2017): "The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators."[25] Yad Vashem (undated): "The Holocaust was the murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators. Between the German invasion of the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941 and the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Nazi Germany and its accomplices strove to murder every Jew under their domination."[26]  Yad Vashem: "There is no precise figure for the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust. The figure commonly used is the six million quoted by Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official. All the serious research confirms that the number of victims was between five and six million. Early calculations range from 5.1 million (Professor Raul Hilberg) to 5.95 million (Jacob Leschinsky). More recent research, by Professor Yisrael Gutman and Dr. Robert Rozett in the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, estimates the Jewish losses at 5.59–5.86 million, and a study headed by Dr. Wolfgang Benz presents a range from 5.29 million to 6.2 million. "The main sources for these statistics are comparisons of prewar censuses with postwar censuses and population estimates. Nazi documentation containing partial data on various deportations and murders is also used."[424]  United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: "According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. ... By 1945, most European Jews—two out of every three—had been killed."[3]  Oxford Dictionaries (2017): "from Old French holocauste, via late Latin from Greek holokauston, from holos 'whole' + kaustos 'burnt' (from kaiein 'burn')".[10]  The term shoah was used in a pamphlet in 1940, Sho'at Yehudei Polin ("Sho'ah of Polish Jews"), published by the United Aid Committee for the Jews in Poland.[12]  The Hebrew word churban is mostly used by Orthodox Jews to refer to the Holocaust.[19]  Michael Gray, a specialist in Holocaust education,[28] offers three definitions of the Holocaust: (a) "the persecution and murder of Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators between 1933 and 1945", which includes Kristallnacht in 1938; (b) "the systematic mass murder of the Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1941 and 1945," which recognizes the German policy shift in 1941 toward extermination; and (c) "the persecution and murder of various groups by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945," which fails to recognize that the European Jews were targeted for annihilation.[29]  Eberhard Jäckel (Die Zeit, 12 September 1986): "Ich behaupte ... daß der nationalsozialistische Mord an den Juden deswegen einzigartig war, weil noch nie zuvor ein Staat mit der Autorität seines verantwortlichen Führers beschlossen und angekündigt hatte, eine bestimmte Menschengruppe einschließlich der Alten, der Frauen, der Kinder und der Säuglinge möglichst restlos zu töten, und diesen Beschluß mit allen nur möglichen staatlichen Machtmitteln in die Tat umsetzte." ("I maintain ... that the National Socialist killing of the Jews was unique in that never before had a state with the authority of its leader decided and announced that a specific group of humans, including the elderly, the women, the children and the infants, would be killed as quickly as possible, and then carried out this resolution using every possible means of state power.")[35]  The full extent of Mengele's work is unknown because records he sent to Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer are assumed to have been destroyed.[47]  The French had planned to try Grynszpan for murder, but the German invasion in 1940 interrupted the proceedings. Grynszpan was handed over to the Germans and his fate is unknown.[107]  David Cesarani (2016): "The absence of consistency with regards to ghettos can be traced back to a fundamental confusion over means and ends. Were Jews to be expelled, placed in ghettos, or put to death? Until October 1941, the hope was that Jews would be expelled into Siberia after the end of hostilities."[122]  Jeremy Black writes that the ghettos were not intended, in 1939, as a step towards the extermination of the Jews. Instead, they were viewed as part of a policy of creating a territorial reservation to contain them.[131]  John-Paul Himka (2011): "Before war broke out, Lviv had been in Poland, but from September 1939 until the end of June 1941 it came under Soviet rule and was joined to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. It changed hands again on 30 June 1941, when the Germans took the city."[149]  About 42,000 Jews in the General Government were shot during Operation Harvest Festival (Aktion Erntefest) on 3–4 November 1943.[166]  In a memorandum ten days after the invasion, Reinhard Heydrich laid out the guidelines he had issued to the Einsatzgruppen: "All the following are to be executed: Officials of the Comintern (together with professional Communist politicians in general; top and medium-level officials and radical lower-level officials of the Party, Central Committee and district and sub-district committees; People's Commissars; Jews in the Party and State employment, and other radical elements (saboteurs, propagandists, snipers, assassins, inciters etc.) ... No steps will be taken to interfere with any purges that may be initiated by anti-Communist or anti-Jewish elements ... On the contrary, these are to be secretly encouraged." Cesarani writes that it is "noteworthy that Heyrich did not want the SS to be held responsible".[203]  Nikolaus Wachsmann (2015): "The genesis of the Holocaust was lengthy and complex. The days are long gone when historians believed that it could be reduced to a single decision taken on a single day by Hitler. Instead, the Holocaust was the culmination of a dynamic murderous process, propelled by increasingly radical initiatives from above and below. During World War II, the Nazi pursuit of a Final Solution moved from increasingly lethal plans for Jewish 'reservations' to immediate extermination. There were several key periods of radicalization. The invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 marked one such moment, as mass shootings of Jewish men of military age soon grew into widespread ethnic cleansing, with daily bloodbaths of women, children, and the elderly."[222]  Until being occupied by Germany on 19 March 1944. Almost 10 times more Hungarian Jews were deported and/or killed during the ensuing German occupation.  Until being occupied by Germany during September 1943. Nearly one fifth of Italian Jews (7,800) were deported and/or killed during the ensuing puppet regime.  "Už odbilo Židom! Najprísnejšie rasové zákony na Židov sú slovenské"  Those present included (annotated, left to right): Joseph Goebbels, Wilhelm Frick, Wilhelm Keitel, Walter von Brauchitsch, Erich Raeder, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Adolf Hitler, and Hermann Göring.  Joseph Goebbels (13 December 1941): "Regarding the Jewish question, the Fuhrer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives."[280]  Frank continued by discussing their deportation, then asked: "But what is to happen to the Jews? ... In Berlin we were told "Why all this trouble? We cannot use them in the Ostland or the Reichskommissariat either; liquidate them yourselves!" Gentlemen, I must ask you, arm yourselves against any thoughts of compassion. We must destroy the Jews, wherever we encounter them and whenever it is possible, in order to preserve the entire structure of the Reich. ... We have an estimated 2.5 million Jews in the General Government, perhaps with the half-Jews and all that that entails some 3.5 million. We cannot shoot these 3.5 million Jews, we cannot poison them, but nonetheless we will take some kind of action that will lead to a successful destruction ... The General Government must become just as free of Jews as the Reich."[284]  United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "Participants at the Wannsee Conference": For the SS: SS General Reinhard Heydrich (chief of the Reich Security Main Office); SS Major General Heinrich Müller (Gestapo); SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann (Referat IV B4); SS Colonel Eberhard Schöngarth (commander of the RSHA field office for the Government General in Krakow, Poland); SS Major Rudolf Lange (commander of RSHA Einsatzkommando 2); and SS Major General Otto Hofmann (chief of SS Race and Settlement Main Office). For the State: Roland Freisler (Ministry of Justice); Friedrich Wilhelm Kritzinger (Reich Cabinet); Alfred Meyer (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories-German-occupied USSR); Georg Leibrandt (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories); Martin Luther (Foreign Office); Wilhelm Stuckart (Ministry of the Interior); Erich Neumann (Office of Plenipotentiary for the Four-Year Plan), Josef Bühler (Office of the Government of the Governor General-German-occupied Poland); Gerhard Klopfer (Nazi Party Chancellery).[290]  Altreich refers to territories that were part of Nazi Germany before 1938.  Wannsee-Protokoll: "Diese Aktionen sind jedoch lediglich als Ausweichmöglichkeiten anzusprechen, doch werden hier bereits jene praktischen Erfahrungen gesammelt, die im Hinblick auf die kommende Endlösung der Judenfrage von wichtiger Bedeutung sind."[297] Translation, Avalon Project: "These actions are, however, only to be considered provisional, but practical experience is already being collected which is of the greatest importance in relation to the future final solution of the Jewish question."[294]  Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3 million deported to Auschwitz, 1,082,000 were murdered there between 1940 and 1945, a figure (rounded up to 1.1 million) that he regarded as a minimum.[299]  Auschwitz I contained crematorium I, which stopped operating in July 1943.[300] Auschwitz II contained crematoria II–V.[301]  Auschwitz I also had a gas chamber; the murder of non-Jewish Poles and Soviet POWs began there in August 1941.  French Jews were active in the French Resistance.[368] Zionist Jews formed the Armee Juive (Jewish Army), which participated in armed resistance under a Zionist flag, smuggled Jews out of the country,[369] and participated in the liberation of Paris and other cities.[370] As many as 1.5 million Jewish soldiers fought in the Allied armies, including 500,000 in the Red Army, 550,000 in the U.S. Army, 100,000 in the Polish army, and 30,000 in the British army. About 200,000 Jewish soldiers serving in the Red Army died in the war, either in combat or after capture.[371] The Jewish Brigade, a unit of 5,000 Jewish volunteers from the British Mandate of Palestine, fought in the British Army.[372]  Michael Fleming (2014): "As is evidenced by the reports that reached Warsaw, the resistance movement in the camp was well aware of what was happening to the Jews, and in a report dated 1 July 1942 advised that from June 1941 Soviet prisoners of war were taken straight from trains to the gas chambers. This report also noted that through 1942 around 30,000 Jewish men and 15,000 Jewish women and children had arrived at Oświęcim, most of whom—including all the children—were gassed immediately. The exact date that this information was received in Warsaw is not known, but it was included as an attachment to an internal Home Army report ... on 28 September 1942 and the Underground leadership in Warsaw incorporated this information into the situation report for the period from 26 August to 10 October 1942. [This document and 23 other reports] ... did not reach London until late winter 1943."[379]  The Russian Academy of Science article by M. V. Filimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.[435] (However the 2001 edition of Krivosheev put the figure at 7,420.379.)[437]  The Russian Academy of Science article by M. V. Filimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.[435] References Citations  "Deportation of Hungarian Jews". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. 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KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-11825-9. Wette, Wolfram (2006). The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02213-3. Wyman, David S. (2007) [1984]. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945. The New Press. ISBN 978-1595581747. Wyman, David S.; Rosenzveig, Charlges (1996). The World Reacts to the Holocaust. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4969-1. Yahil, Leni (1990). The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504523-9. Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2015). The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1426-8. Zuccotti, Susan (1993). The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03034-3. Zweig, Ronald (2001). "Reparations, German". In Laqueur, Walter; Baumel, Judith Tydor (eds.). The Holocaust Encyclopedia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 530–532. ISBN 0-300-08432-3. External links For further reading, see Bibliography of the Holocaust. Global Directory of Holocaust Museums. H-Holocaust, H-Net discussion list for librarians, scholars and advanced students. "Auschwitz: Drone video of Nazi concentration camp". BBC News, 27 January 2015. Frankel, Max (14 November 2001). "150th Anniversary: 1851–2001; Turning Away From the Holocaust". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. vte The Holocaust vte Antisemitism More articles related to the Holocaust Portals: icon Genocide  Judaism flag Germany icon Law  History icon Politics The Holocaust at Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: The Holocaust1940s in EuropeAnti-black racism in EuropeAnti-communismAnti-MasonryAnti-Polish sentiment in EuropeAnti-Russian sentimentAntisemitic attacks and incidentsEthnic cleansing in EuropeGenocides in EuropeHistory of the Jews in EuropeHistory of the Romani people during World War IIHomophobiaMass murder in 1941Mass murder in 1942Mass murder in 1943Mass murder in 1944Mass murder in 1945Nazi war crimesPersecution of Jehovah's WitnessesVichy France Auschwitz Birkenau German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)     Description     Maps     Documents     Gallery     Video     Indicators     Assistance Auschwitz Birkenau German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945) The fortified walls, barbed wire, platforms, barracks, gallows, gas chambers and cremation ovens show the conditions within which the Nazi genocide took place in the former concentration and extermination camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest in the Third Reich. According to historical investigations, 1.5 million people, among them a great number of Jews, were systematically starved, tortured and murdered in this camp, the symbol of humanity's cruelty to its fellow human beings in the 20th century. Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0     English     French     Arabic     Chinese     Russian     Spanish     Japanese     Dutch [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] Entrance of Auschwitz I © Nathalie Valanchon [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] [Auschwitz Birkenau <br /><small>German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)</small>] Outstanding Universal Value Brief synthesis Auschwitz Birkenau was the principal and most notorious of the six concentration and extermination camps established by Nazi Germany to implement its Final Solution policy which had as its aim the mass murder of the Jewish people in Europe. Built in Poland under Nazi German occupation initially as a concentration camp for Poles and later for Soviet prisoners of war, it soon became a prison for a number of other nationalities. Between the years 1942-1944 it became the main mass extermination camp where Jews were tortured and killed for their so-called racial origins. In addition to the mass murder of well over a million Jewish men, women and children, and tens of thousands of Polish victims, Auschwitz also served as a camp for the racial murder of thousands of Roma and Sinti and prisoners of several European nationalities. The Nazi policy of spoliation, degradation and extermination of the Jews was rooted in a racist and anti-Semitic ideology propagated by the Third Reich. Auschwitz Birkenau was the largest of the concentration camp complexes created by the Nazi German regime and was the one which combined extermination with forced labour. At the centre of a huge landscape of human exploitation and suffering, the remains of the two camps of Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau were inscribed on the World Heritage List as evidence of this inhumane, cruel and methodical effort to deny human dignity to groups considered inferior, leading to their systematic murder. The camps are a vivid testimony to the murderous nature of the anti-Semitic and racist Nazi policy that brought about the annihilation of over one million people in the crematoria, 90% of whom were Jews. The fortified walls, barbed wire, railway sidings, platforms, barracks, gallows, gas chambers and crematoria at Auschwitz Birkenau show clearly how the Holocaust, as well as the Nazi German policy of mass murder and forced labour took place. The collections at the site preserve the evidence of those who were premeditatedly murdered, as well as presenting the systematic mechanism by which this was done. The personal items in the collections are testimony to the lives of the victims before they were brought to the extermination camps, as well as to the cynical use of their possessions and remains. The site and its landscape have high levels of authenticity and integrity since the original evidence has been carefully conserved without any unnecessary restoration. Criterion (vi): Auschwitz Birkenau, monument to the deliberate genocide of the Jews by the German Nazi regime and to the deaths of countless others, bears irrefutable evidence to one of the greatest crimes ever perpetrated against humanity. It is also a monument to the strength of the human spirit which in appalling conditions of adversity resisted the efforts of the German Nazi regime to suppress freedom and free thought and to wipe out whole races. The site is a key place of memory for the whole of humankind for the Holocaust, racist policies and barbarism; it is a place of our collective memory of this dark chapter in the history of humanity, of transmission to younger generations and a sign of warning of the many threats and tragic consequences of extreme ideologies and denial of human dignity. Integrity Within the 191.97-ha serial property – which consists of three component parts: the former Auschwitz I camp, the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau camp and a mass grave of inmates – are located the most important structures related to the exceptional events that took place here and that bear testimony to their significance to humanity. It is the most representative part of the Auschwitz complex, which consisted of nearly 50 camps and sub-camps. The Auschwitz Birkenau camp complex comprises 155 brick and wooden structures (57 in Auschwitz and 98 in Birkenau) and about 300 ruins. There are also ruins of gas chambers and crematoria in Birkenau, which were dynamited in January 1945. The overall length of fencing supported by concrete poles is more than 13 km. Individual structures of high historical significance, such as railway sidings and ramps, food stores and industrial buildings, are dispersed in the immediate setting of the property. These structures, along with traces in the landscape, remain poignant testimonies to this tragic history. The Auschwitz I main camp was a place of extermination, effected mainly by depriving people of elementary living conditions. It was also a centre for immediate extermination. Here were located the offices of the camp’s administration, the local garrison commander and the commandant of Auschwitz I, the seat of the central offices of the political department, and the prisoner labour department. Here too were the main supply stores, workshops and Schutzstaffel (SS) companies. Work in these administrative and economic units and companies was the main form of forced labour for the inmates in this camp. Birkenau was the largest camp in the Auschwitz complex. It became primarily a centre for the mass murder of Jews brought there for extermination, and of Roma and Sinti prisoners during its final period. Sick prisoners and those selected for death from the whole Auschwitz complex – and, to a smaller extent, from other camps – were also gathered and systematically killed here. It ultimately became a place for the concentration of prisoners before they were transferred inside the Third Reich to work for German industry. Most of the victims of the Auschwitz complex, probably about 90%, were killed in the Birkenau camp. The property is of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features and processes that convey its significance. Potential threats to the integrity of the property include the difficulty in preserving the memory of the events and their significance to humanity. In the physical sphere, significant potential threats include natural decay of the former camps’ fabric; environmental factors, including the risk of flooding and rising groundwater level; changes in the surroundings of the former camps; and intensive visitor traffic. Authenticity The Auschwitz camp complex has survived largely unchanged since its liberation in January 1945. The remaining camp buildings, structures and infrastructure are a silent witness to history, bearing testimony of the crime of genocide committed by the German Nazis. They are an inseparable part of a death factory organized with precision and ruthless consistency. The attributes that sustain the Outstanding Universal Value of the property are truthfully and credibly expressed, and fully convey the value of the property. At Auschwitz I, the majority of the complex has remained intact. The architecture of the camp consisted mostly of pre-existing buildings converted by the Nazis to serve new functions. The preserved architecture, spaces and layout still recall the historical functions of the individual elements in their entirety. The interiors of some of the buildings have been modified to adapt them to commemorative purposes, but the external façades of these buildings remain unchanged. In Birkenau, which was built anew on the site of a displaced village, only a small number of historic buildings have survived. Due to the method used in constructing those buildings, planned as temporary structures and erected in a hurry using demolition materials, the natural degradation processes have been accelerating. All efforts are nevertheless being taken to preserve them, strengthen their original fabric and protect them from decay. Many historic artefacts from the camp and its inmates have survived and are currently kept in storage. Some are exhibited in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. These include personal items brought by the deportees, as well as authentic documents and preserved photographs, complemented with post-war testimonies of the survivors. Protection and management requirements The property is protected by Polish law under the provisions of heritage protection and spatial planning laws, together with the provisions of local law. The site, buildings and relics of the former Auschwitz Birkenau camp are situated on the premises of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, which operates under a number of legal Acts concerning the operation of museums and protection of the Former Nazi Extermination Camps, which provide that the protection of these sites is a public objective, and its fulfilment is the responsibility of the State administration. The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum is a State cultural institution supervised directly by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage, who ensures the necessary financing for its functioning and the fulfillment of its mission, including educational activities to understand the tragedy of the Holocaust and the need to prevent similar threats today and in future. The Museum has undertaken a long-term programme of conservation measures under its Global Conservation Plan. It is financed largely through funds from the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation, which is supported by states from around the world, as well as by businesses and private individuals. The Foundation has also obtained a State subsidy to supplement the Perpetual Fund (Act of 18 August 2011 on a Subsidy for the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation Intended to Supplement the Perpetual Fund). The existing legal system provides appropriate tools for the effective protection and management of the property. The Museum Council, whose members are appointed by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage, supervises the performance of the Museum’s duties regarding its collections, in particular the execution of its statutory tasks. In addition, the International Auschwitz Council acts as a consultative and advisory body to the Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland on the protection and management of the site of the former Auschwitz Birkenau camp and other places of extermination and former concentration camps situated within the present territory of Poland. Several protective zones surround components of the World Heritage property and function de facto as buffer zones. They are covered by local spatial development plans, which are consulted by the Regional Monuments Inspector. The management of the property’s setting is the responsibility of the local government of the Town and Commune of Oświęcim. For better management and protection of the attributes of the Outstanding Universal Value of the property, especially for the proper protection of its setting, a relevant management plan must be put into force. World War II was one of the deadliest conflicts in human history, claiming the lives of millions of people and changing the course of the world forever. It was fought between the Axis powers (Germany, Japan, and Italy) and the Allied powers (the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, among others) from 1939 to 1945. The war was marked by significant events, including the Holocaust, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the formation of the United Nations. This essay will explore the causes of World War II, the major events of the war, and its lasting impact on the world. Causes of World War II: There are several factors that contributed to the outbreak of World War II. The Treaty of Versailles, signed at the end of World War I, imposed harsh reparations on Germany and stripped it of its colonies, leading to economic instability and resentment in the country. The rise of dictators in Europe, including Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy, also contributed to the outbreak of war. These leaders sought to expand their territories and assert their dominance over other nations, leading to aggressive actions such as Hitler's annexation of Austria and the invasion of Poland. Another factor that contributed to the outbreak of World War II was the failure of appeasement policies in the years leading up to the war. The British and French governments sought to avoid war by making concessions to Hitler, but these efforts only emboldened him to make further demands. The Munich Agreement, signed in 1938, allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with a large German population, in exchange for a promise to stop further territorial expansion. However, Hitler went back on his promise and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, leading to the outbreak of war. Major Events of World War II: The war can be divided into two main theaters: the European Theater and the Pacific Theater. The European Theater was characterized by the fighting between the Allied powers and the Axis powers in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The Pacific Theater was characterized by the fighting between the United States and its allies against Japan and its allies in Asia and the Pacific. One of the major events of World War II was the invasion of Poland by Germany in September 1939. This marked the beginning of the war in Europe and led to the declaration of war by Britain and France. In 1940, Germany launched a massive invasion of Western Europe, defeating France and occupying much of the continent. The Battle of Britain, fought in the skies over Britain, was a key turning point in the war, as the British were able to repel German air attacks and prevent a ground invasion. In 1941, Germany launched a surprise attack on the Soviet Union, breaking their non-aggression pact and launching a massive invasion. The Soviet Union was able to withstand the attack and eventually pushed the Germans back, with the Battle of Stalingrad being a major turning point in the war. Meanwhile, the United States entered the war following the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan in December 1941. The United States and its allies launched a counteroffensive in the Pacific, leading to significant battles such as the Battle of Midway and the Battle of Okinawa. The Holocaust, the systematic extermination of six million Jews by the Nazis, was also a major event of World War II. The Nazis had long-held anti-Semitic beliefs and sought to rid Europe of Jewish influence. This led to the establishment of concentration camps and ghettos, where Jews and other minority groups were imprisoned and subjected to inhumane conditions. Many were worked to death or killed in gas chambers, leading to one of the most horrific events List of Holocaust films Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia These films deal with the Holocaust in Europe, comprising both documentaries and narratives. They began to be produced in the early 1940s before the extent of the Holocaust at that time was widely recognized.[1] The films span a range of genres, with documentary films including footage filmed both by the Germans for propaganda and by the Allies, compilations, survivor accounts and docudramas, and narrative films including war films, action films, love stories, psychological dramas, and even comedies.[1] Narrative films: 1940s · 1950s · 1960s · 1970s · 1980s  · 1980s · 1990s · 2000s · 2010s · 2020s Documentary films: 1940s · 1950s · 1960s · 1970s · 1980s  · 1990s · 2000s · 2010s · 2020s See also · References 1940s Year Country Title Director Notes 1940 United Kingdom Night Train to Munich Carol Reed First feature film to depict concentration camps. 1940 United States The Mortal Storm Frank Borzage One character is sent to a concentration camp and dies there, while his family is trying to leave Nazi Germany. 1940 United States The Great Dictator Charlie Chaplin A condemnation of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, fascism, antisemitism, and the Nazis. The film focuses on two men: a ruthless fascist dictator named Adenoid Hynkel (a parody of Hitler) and a persecuted Jewish barber. The Jewish barber is sent to a concentration camp, but manages to escape (and ends up mistaken for Hynkel, while Hynkel is mistaken for the Jewish barber, and sent off to a concentration camp). In one scene, Herring (a parody of Hermann Göring) makes a passing mention that they have discovered a new poison gas, that will kill everybody. In his 1964 autobiography, Chaplin stated that he could not have made the film if he had known about the true extent of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps at that time.[2] 1942 United States To Be Or Not To Be Ernst Lubitsch One villain is jokingly -and repeatedly- called “concentration camp Erhardt”. 1944 United States The Seventh Cross Fred Zinneman Seven inmates, one Jewish, escape from a concentration camp 1944 Poland Majdanek: Cemetery of Europe Aleksander Ford One of the first films to include footage of concentration camps 1945 Soviet Union The Unvanquished Mark Donskoy First feature film to show mass murder of Jews and hunting for them on the occupied territories. 1946 Venice festival award. 1946 United States The Stranger Orson Welles First feature film to include footage of concentration camps[3] 1946 Germany Die Mörder sind unter uns Wolfgang Staudte The first Rubble Film and the first German film to address Nazi atrocities. English title: Murderers Among Us 1947 Poland The Last Stage Wanda Jakubowska English titles: The Last Stage, The Last Stop 1947 Germany Ehe im Schatten Kurt Maetzig One of the earliest DEFA productions. English title: Marriage in the Shadows 1947 Germany Zwischen Gestern und Morgen Harald Braun One of the first German films to be made in Munich after the war and the first to openly address the Holocaust. English title: Between Yesterday and Tomorrow 1948 Germany Morituri Eugen York 1948 United States The Search Fred Zinnemann In post-war Berlin, an American private helps a lost Czech boy find his mother. 1948 Poland Ulica Graniczna Aleksander Ford A Polish film about the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto, it premieres at the Venice Film Festival; it is released in English as Border Street in 1950.[4][5] 1949 Italy L'ebreo errante Goffredo Alessandrini First Italian film to openly address the Holocaust 1949 United States West Germany Lang ist der Weg Herbert B. Fredersdorf Marek Goldstein Yiddish title: Lang iz der Veg; English title: Long Is the Road 1950s Year Country Title Director Notes 1950 Czechoslovakia Distant Journey Alfréd Radok English title: Distant Journey 1953 United States The Juggler Edward Dmytryk In 1949, former concentration camp inmate and Berlin native Hans Muller immigrates to Israel where, due to psychological problems, he cannot adjust to peacetime life. 1956 United States Singing in the Dark Max Nosseck Musical about Holocaust survivors with amnesia 1958–59 United States Pursuit Ian Sharp Anthology series 1959 East Germany Bulgaria Stars Konrad Wolf English title: Stars 1959 United States The Diary of Anne Frank George Stevens Won three Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actress 1959 Italy Yugoslavia France Kapò Gillo Pontecorvo 1959 Poland Biały niedźwiedź Jerzy Zarzycki A Jew who escaped from a transport to a concentration camp is hiding by posing for tourists disguised as a polar bear. 1960s Year Country Title Director Notes 1960 Czechoslovakia Romeo, Julie a tma Jiří Weiss English title: Romeo, Juliet and Darkness. Concerns Operation Anthropoid. 1960 United States Exodus Otto Preminger Based on the novel by Leon Uris; screenplay by Dalton Trumbo. 1960 Yugoslavia Deveti krug France Stiglic English title:The Ninth Circle 1961 Italy Gold of Rome Carlo Lizzani Italian title: L'oro di Roma 1961 United States Judgment at Nuremberg Stanley Kramer Winner of Academy Awards for Best Actor and Best Adapted Screenplay 1961 Poland Samson Andrzej Wajda 1961 Belgium L'enclos Armand Gatti Italian title: Otto ore al buio. Prix de la Critique at 1961 Cannes Festival. 1963 Poland Passenger Andrzej Munk 1963 East Germany Naked Among Wolves Frank Beyer 1964 United States The Pawnbroker Sidney Lumet A Jewish pawnbroker, victim of Nazi persecution, loses all faith in his fellow man until he realizes too late the tragedy of his actions. 1965 East Germany Chronik eines Mordes Joachim Hasler English title: Chronicle of a Murder 1965 Czechoslovakia The Shop On Main Street Ján Kadár & Elmar Klos 1965 Germany The Investigation Peter Weiss Also as TV play "Die Ermittlung" (1966) 1966 United States The Last Chapter Benjamin Rothman & Lawrence Rothman, S. L. Shneiderman The Last Chapter is the destruction of Polish Jewry by the Nazi onslaught, depicted here with sensitivity and high drama. The film includes rare footage of Jewish life in early 20th century Poland. 1967 United States The Diary of Anne Frank Alex Segal TV movie: Harrowing story of a young Jewish girl who, with her family and their friends, is forced into hiding in an attic in Nazi-occupied Amsterdam. 1969 France Army of Shadows Jean Pierre Melville 1970s Year Country Title Director Notes 1970 Poland Apel Ryszard Czekała Animated short film 1970 Poland Epilog norymberski Jerzy Antczak TV Theatre reconstruction of Nuremberg trials 1970 Italy West Germany The Garden of the Finzi-Continis Vittorio De Sica Italian title: Il Giardino dei Finzi-Contini; based on the novel by Giorgio Bassani; Oscar for Best Foreign Film 1970 Yugoslavia Hranjenik Vatroslav Mimica English title:The Fed Ones 1972 United States The Day the Clown Cried Jerry Lewis Never shown to the general public 1972 United States Cabaret Bob Fosse American musical drama film set in Berlin during the Weimar Republic in 1931, as the Nazi Party rises to power. 1973 Israel West Germany Sie sind frei, Dr. Korczak Aleksander Ford 1974 United Kingdom QB VII Tom Gries TV miniseries; based on Leon Uris novel of same name 1974 Italy The Night Porter Liliana Cavani 1974 United Kingdom West Germany The Odessa File Ronald Neame Based on Frederick Forsyth novel of same name 1975 East Germany Jacob the Liar Frank Beyer Based on the novel by Jurek Becker 1975 United States The Hiding Place James F. Collier Based on the autobiography of Corrie ten Boom 1975 Italy Seven Beauties Lina Wertmüller 1975 United States The Man in the Glass Booth Arthur Hiller 1976 United States Marathon Man John Schlesinger 1976 France Monsieur Klein Joseph Losey 1976 Spain Voyage of the Damned Stuart Rosenberg 1977 Italy L'ultima orgia del III Reich Cesare Canevari 1977 United States Julia Fred Zinnemann Based on a chapter from Lillian Hellman's 1973 book Pentimento about the author's relationship with a lifelong friend, "Julia", who fought against the Nazis in the years prior to World War II. It received 11 Academy Award nominations including for Best Picture 1978 Holocaust Marvin J. Chomsky TV miniseries, popularised the term 'Holocaust'. 1978 Yugoslavia Okupacija u 26 slika Lordan Zafranović 1979 West Germany Baranski Werner Masten 1979 West Germany The Tin Drum Volker Schlondorff 1979 West Germany David Peter Lilienthal 1979 United States The House on Garibaldi Street Peter Collinson 1980s Year Country Title Director Notes 1980 United States The Diary of Anne Frank Boris Sagal TV movie 1980 United States Playing For Time Daniel Mann TV film; based on the autobiography of Fania Fénelon; adaptation by Arthur Miller 1981 France Les Uns et les Autres Claude Lelouch English title: Bolero 1982 West Germany Ein Stück Himmel Franz Peter Wirth TV mini-series; based on the autobiography of Janina David 1982 United States Sophie's Choice Alan J. Pakula Based on the novel by William Styron; Meryl Streep won Academy Award for Best Actress 1982 Austria God Does Not Believe in Us Anymore Axel Corti http://www.jewishfilm.org/Catalogue/films/goddoesnotbelieveinus.htm 1983 France Canada Au Nom de Tous les Miens Robert Enrico English title: For Those I Loved; based on the book by Martin Gray 1983 Hungary Jób lázadása Barna Kabay English title: Job's Revolt 1983 United States To Be Or Not To Be Alan Johnson A remake of the 1942 comedy, starring Mel Brooks and Anne Bancroft. 1983 United States West Germany Italy The Scarlet and the Black Jerry London TV movie; based on the J.P. Gallagher novel The Scarlet Pimpernel of the Vatican 1983 United States The Winds of War Dan Curtis Based on the novel by Herman Wouk; 1984 Yugoslavia Banjica Sava Mrmak TV mini-series 1984 West Germany United Kingdom Forbidden Anthony Page 1984 West Germany Wannseekonferenz Heinz Schirk TV movie 1985 United States Wallenberg: A Hero's Story Lamont Johnson 1985 Soviet Union Come and see Elem Klimov Russian title: Idi i smotri, Winner Venice Classics Award for Best Restored film 1987 United Kingdom Yugoslavia Escape from Sobibor Jack Gold Based on the book by Richard Rashke Nominated for three Golden Globe Awards; won two, including Best Limited Series or Motion Picture made for Television 1987 France Au revoir les enfants Louis Malle 1988 Poland United States And the Violins Stopped Playing Alexander Ramati 1988 United States The Attic: The Hiding of Anne Frank John Erman TV movie 1988 United States Hanna's War Menahem Golan 1988 Poland Kornblumenblau Leszek Wosiewicz The film was selected as the Polish entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 62nd Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. 1988 United States War and Remembrance Dan Curtis TV mini-series; based on the novel by Herman Wouk, and the sequel to The Winds of War Nominated for 15 Primetime Emmy Awards; won 3 including Outstanding Miniseries 1989 United States Enemies, a Love Story Paul Mazursky Based on the novel by Isaac Bashevis Singer 1989 United States Music Box Costa-Gavras 1989 United States Triumph of the Spirit Robert M. Young 1990s Year Country Title Director Notes 1990 West Germany Abrahams Gold Jörg Graser 1990 West Germany Der Tod ist ein Meister aus Deutschland Lea Rosh & Eberhard Jäckel 1990 Australia Father John Power 1990 Poland Korczak Andrzej Wajda Based on the true story of Dr. Janusz Korczak and his attempt to keep alive the children in his Warsaw Ghetto orphanage. 1990 Germany France Poland Europa Europa Agnieszka Holland Nominated for the Academy Award for Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay) 1991 Poland Jeszcze tylko ten las Jan Lomnicki English title: Just Beyond That Forest 1991 Czechoslovakia Poslední motýl Karel Kachyňa English title: The Last Butterfly 1991 United States Never Forget Joseph Sargent TV movie; based on the life of Mel Mermelstein 1991 Canada The Quarrel Eli Cohen Based on the story My Quarrel with Hersh Rasseyner by Chaim Grade 1992 United Kingdom France Prague Ian Sellar 1992 United States Alan & Naomi Sterling Van Wagenen Based on a novel by Myron Levoy 1992 United States The Witness Chris Gerolmo Short film 1993 Italy France Jona che visse nella balena Roberto Faenza English title: Jonah Who Lived in the Whale, aka Look to the Sky 1993 United States Schindler's List Steven Spielberg Based on the novel by Thomas Kenneally about the real-life Schindler, a popular industrialist who cleverly manipulated the Nazis to save others, this movie won 7 Academy Awards, including Best Picture.[6] 1993 United States Swing Kids Thomas Carter Young teens in Nazi Germany listen to banned swing music and deal with the pressures of joining the Nazi Youth Army. 1994 Austria Totschweigen Margareta Heinrich & Eduard Erne The subject of the film is the massacre of Rechnitz 1995 France Les Misérables Claude Lelouch 1995 Japan Anne no Nikki Akinori Nagaoka Anime adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank 1996 United States Hidden in Silence Richard A. Colla A True Story about the Podgórski sisters who rescued 13 Jews from the Przemyśl Ghetto. 1996 United States The Empty Mirror Barry J. Hershey 1996 United States The Man Who Captured Eichmann William A. Graham Based on the book Eichmann in My Hands by Peter Z. Malkin 1996 United States Mother Night Keith Gordon Based on the novel by Kurt Vonnegut, and starring Nick Nolte. 1996 United States The Ring Armand Mastroianni TV film; based on the novel by Danielle Steel 1996 United States The Substance of Fire Daniel J. Sullivan Based on the play by Jon Robin Baitz 1996 Hungary A hetedik szoba[7] Márta Mészáros English title: The Seventh Room. Dramatic portrayal of the life of Edith Stein, a nun and Auschwitz victim who was later canonized in the Roman Catholic Church 1997 Italy France Germany Switzerland La Tregua Francesco Rosi English title: The Truce. Based on the autobiography by Primo Levi 1997 United States Visas and Virtue Chris Tashima Short film; based on the play by Tim Toyama 1997 Italy La vita è bella Roberto Benigni English title: Life is Beautiful. Won three Academy Awards, including Best Actor for Robert Benigni 1997 Denmark United Kingdom Germany The Island on Bird Street Søren Kragh-Jacobsen Based on the book by Uri Orlev 1997 United Kingdom Bent Sean Mathias Based on the play by Martin Sherman 1998 United States Apt Pupil Bryan Singer Based on the novela by Stephen King 1998 Netherlands Belgium Left Luggage Jeroen Krabbé Based on the novel by Carl Friedman 1998 United States Miracle at Midnight Ken Cameron TV movie 1998 United States Pola's March Jonathan Gruber 1998 France Belgium Netherlands Israel Train of Life Radu Mihaileanu 1998 Germany Die Akte B. – Alois Brunner: Die Geschichte eines Massenmörders Georg M. Hafner & Esther Schapira 1999 Germany Aimée & Jaguar Max Färberböck Based on a book of the same name by Erica Fischer 1999 Czech Republic All My Loved Ones Matej Mináč 1999 United States The Devil's Arithmetic Donna Deitch Based on the novel by Jane Yolen 1999 Germany Gloomy Sunday Rolf Schübel Based on the novel by Nick Barkow 1999 United States Jakob the Liar Peter Kassovitz Based on the novel by Jurek Becker 1999 Germany Austria Canada Hungary Sunshine István Szabó 2000s Year Country Title Directors Notes 2000 Czech Republic Musíme si pomáhat Jan Hřebejk English title: Divided We Fall 2000 Canada Nuremberg Yves Simoneau TV movie; based on the book by Joseph E. Persico 2000 Czech Republic Pramen života Milan Cieslar English title: The Spring Of Life; based on the book by Vladimír Körner 2000 United States Poland Edges of the Lord Yurek Bogayevicz 2001 Hungary Hamvadó cigarettavég Péter Bacsó Title in English: Smoldering Cigarette. The film is a fictionalized portrayal of the Hungarian diva Katalin Karády's act of saving her Jewish lyricist György G. Denes from forced labor camp and connecting him with organized espionage against Nazi Germany. 2001 United States Anne Frank: The Whole Story Robert Dornhelm TV movie; based on the book by Melissa Müller 2001 United States United Kingdom Conspiracy Frank Pierson TV movie 2001 United States The Grey Zone Tim Blake Nelson Based on the book 2001 Germany Nirgendwo in Afrika Caroline Link English title: Nowhere in Africa; adaptation of Stefanie Zweig's autobiographical novel 2001 United States Uprising Jon Avnet TV movie 2002 France Germany Amen. Costa-Gavras Based on the play The Deputy by Rolf Hochhuth 2002 France Germany United Kingdom Poland The Pianist Roman Polanski Based on the autobiography by Wladyslaw Szpilman; won three Academy Awards 2002 Czech Republic The Power of Good Matej Mináč Documentary[8][9] 2003 Hungary A Rózsa énekei Andor Szilágyi 2003 Italy Facing Windows Ferzan Özpetek English title: Facing Windows 2003 United States The Singing Forest Jorge Ameer 2003 United States Out of the Ashes Joseph Sargent Based on the book I Was a Doctor in Auschwitz by Gisella Perl 2003 United States Hitler: The Rise of Evil Christian Duguay TV movie 2003 Germany Babiy Yar Jeff Kanew 2004 Brazil Olga Jayme Monjardim 2005 Poland Sweden Ninas resa Lena Einhorn 2005 France A Love to Hide Christian Faure TV movie 2005 United States Everything is Illuminated Liev Schreiber Based on the book by Jonathan Safran Foer 2005 United Kingdom Primo Richard Wilson TV movie 2005 Germany Sophie Scholl - Die letzten Tage Marc Rothemund English title: Sophie Scholl: The Final Days 2005 Hungary Fateless Lajos Koltai Based on the book by Imre Kertész 2006 Netherlands Black Book Paul Verhoeven 2006 Germany Czech Republic Der Letzte Zug Joseph Vilsmaier/ Dana Vávrová English title: The Last Train 2006 United States Forgiving Dr. Mengele Bob Hercules Cheri Pugh 2007 Germany Spielzeugland Jochen Alexander Freydank English title: Toyland. Won the 2009 Best Live Action Short Film Oscar at the 81st Academy Awards. 2007 United Kingdom The Relief of Belsen Justin Hardy Depicts events that unfolded at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp following the liberation of the camp by British troops in April 1945. 2007 Germany Austria The Counterfeiters Stefan Ruzowitzky Based on a memoir written by Adolf Burger; won the 2007 Best Foreign Language Film Oscar at the 80th Academy Awards. 2008 United Kingdom God on Trial Andy DeEmmony 2008 United Kingdom United States The Boy in the Striped Pajamas Mark Herman Adaptation of John Boyne's novel 2008 United States Defiance Edward Zwick Based on the book by Nechama Tec; nomination for an Academy Award in the category of Best Original Score 2008 United Kingdom United States The Reader Stephen Daldry Based on the book by Bernhard Schlink Kate Winslet won Academy Award For Best Actress 2008 Hungary Germany United Kingdom Good Vicente Amorim Based on the play by Cecil Philip Taylor 2009 France La rafle Rose Bosch Based on the true story of a young Jewish boy 2009 France L'armée du crime Robert Guédiguian English title: The Army of Crime 2009 France Korkoro Tony Gatlif The film depicts the subject of Porajmos. 2009 United States Germany Inglourious Basterds Quentin Tarantino Alternate history war comedy. Nominated for eight Academy Awards. 2009 United States Poland Canada The Courageous Heart of Irena Sendler John Kent Harrison TV movie 2010s Year Country Title Directors Notes 2010 United States Poland Esther's Diary Mariusz Kotowski Features original footage from the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum 2010 France Sarah's Key Gilles Paquet-Brenner An adaptation of the novel Elle s'appelait Sarah by Tatiana De Rosnay 2010 Czech Republic Austria Germany Habermann Juraj Herz Based on true events and is the first major motion picture to dramatize the expulsion of 3 million Germans from Czechoslovakia. 2010 France The Round Up Rose Bosch The Vel' d'Hiv Roundup. 2010 China A Jewish Girl in Shanghai Wang Genfa, Zhang Zhenhui Animated. Life of a Jewish girl with her little brother in Shanghai, and her parents in Europe. 2011 Poland In Darkness Agnieszka Holland Nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the 84th Academy Awards. 2011 Germany Wunderkinder Markus Rosenmüller Story about deep friendship between three musically talented children. 2011 Spain El ángel de Budapest Luis Oliveros The plot focuses on Ángel Sanz Briz, a Spanish ambassador in Hungary during World War II. Operating until early 1944 in Budapest, he helped to save the lives of thousands of Jews from the Holocaust. 2012 Poland Aftermath Wladyslaw Pasikowski Aftermath (Polish: Pokłosie) - the fictional Holocaust-related thriller and drama is inspired by the July 1941 Jedwabne pogrom in occupied north-eastern Poland 2012 Netherlands Süskind Rudolf van den Berg Based on the true story of Walter Süskind 2012 Macedonia The Third Half Darko Mitrevski 2012 Serbia When Day Breaks Goran Paskaljević 2013 Argentina The German Doctor Lucía Puenzo Original title: Wakolda 2013 Germany An Apartment in Berlin Alice Agneskirchner German TV film. The story of the family Adler living in Berlin, betrayed by Stella Goldschlag murdered in Auschwitz in 1944 and three young students moving from Israel to Berlin. 2013 Germany Poland Run Boy Run Pepe Danquart 2013 Switzerland Akte Grüninger Alain Gsponer Based on the true story of Paul Grüninger. 2013 Czech Republic Slovakia Colette Milan Cieslar An adaptation of the novel A girl from Antwerp by Arnošt Lustig 2013 Poland Denmark Ida Paweł Pawlikowski Won Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 87th Academy Awards 2014 Poland Warsaw 44 Jan Komasa Original title Miasto '44 2014 Germany Labyrinth of Lies Giulio Ricciarelli 2014 France To Life Jean-Jacques Silbermann 2015 Germany Naked Among Wolves Philipp Kadelbach 2015 Germany The People vs. Fritz Bauer Lars Kraume 2015 Canada Remember Atom Egoyan Won Best Original Screenplay at 4th Canadian Screen Awards 2015 Russia Germany The Way Out Mikhail Uchitelev Short. Accepted at the Short Film Corner of the 68th Cannes Festival 2015 Hungary Son of Saul László Nemes Won Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 88th Academy Awards; Winner of the Grand Prix at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival; Winner of the Best Foreign Language Film Category at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards; Winner of Best International Film at the 31st Independent Spirit Awards 2015 Germany Meine Tochter Anne Frank Raymond Lay German television film about Anne Frank, on the view of her father 2016 Germany Das Tagebuch der Anne Frank Hans Steinbichler German cinematographic feature about Anne Frank 2016 United States Denial Mick Jackson Adaptation of the book Denying the Holocaust 2017 United States United Kingdom The Zookeeper's Wife Niki Caro Adaptation of the novel The Zookeeper's Wife 2017 Hungary 1945 Ferenc Török Winner of multiple international film awards 2017 United States The Man with the Iron Heart Cédric Jimenez Based on French writer Laurent Binet's novel HHhH 2017 France Un sac de billes Christian Duguay 2017 Israel Austria Ha Edut (The Testament) Amichai Greenberg 2018 Russia Sobibor Konstantin Khabensky 2018 Germany Never Look Away Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck 2018 United States Operation Finale Chris Weitz Follows the efforts of Israeli intelligence officers to capture former SS officer Adolf Eichmann in 1960 2018 Philippines Quezon's Game Matthew Rose Features Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon's plan to provide refuge for Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany. 2018 Spain The Photographer of Mauthausen Mar Targarona Story of Francisco Boix and his covert documentation of life at Mauthausen Concentration Camp 2018 Poland Germany Netherlands Werewolf Adrian Panek 2018 United States The Samuel Project Marc Fusco 2018 Germany Transit Christian Petzold Adaptation of the novel Transit by Anna Seghers 2019 United States Jojo Rabbit Taika Waititi Adaptation of the novel Caging Skies by Christine Leunens 2019 Canada Hungary The Song Of Names Françoise Girard Adaptation of the novel "The Song Of Names by Norman Lebrecht 2020s Year Country Title Directors Notes 2020 United States United Kingdom Germany Resistance Jonathan Jakubowicz Inspired by the life of Marcel Marceau 2020 United States My Name is Sara Steven Oritt 2020 United States The Secrets We Keep Yuval Adler A Roma Holocaust survivor, Maja, struggles with PTSD and survivor's guilt in the 1950s. She encounters a man, whom she recognizes as a German soldier, who had raped her 15 years earlier, and been involved in the murder of her sister. 2021 Serbia Dara of Jasenovac Predrag Antonijević It is the first modern production on the subject of the Jasenovac concentration camp. 2021 Slovakia The Auschwitz Report Peter Bebjak Two prisoners in the Auschwitz concentration camp manage to escape with a document about the camp's operation 2021 Italy L'equilibrista con la stella Davide Campagna Film set in North Italy: A Jewish girl falls in love with a young Clown, who hides her from Nazis in his circus and teaches her to be tightrope walker. 2021 USA, Canada, Hungary The Survivor Barry Levinson Based on the story of Harry Haft - the boxer in Auschwitz 2022 Germany The Conference Matti Geschonneck After Die Wannseekonferenz (1984) and Conspiracy (2001), this is the third television film depiction of the Wannsee Conference. Documentary films 1940s Year Country Title Director Notes 1945 United Kingdom German Concentration Camps Factual Survey production supervised by Sidney Bernstein Long shelved, completed in 2014; Alfred Hitchcock collaborated on production 1945 United States Death Mills Billy Wilder English Version of Die Todesmühlen; excerpted from German Concentration Camps Factual Survey 1945 Poland Majdanek - cmentarzysko Europy Aleksander Ford English title: Majdanek: Cemetery of Europe 1945 United States Nazi Concentration Camps[10] George Stevens Presented as evidence at the Nuremberg trials. 1945 United States The Nazi Plan George Stevens Presented as evidence at the Nuremberg trials 1945 Yugoslavia Jasenovac[11] Gustav Gavrin & Kosta Hlavaty circa 1946 United Kingdom Memory of the Camps[12] original documentary supervised by Sidney Bernstein Shorter version of German Concentration Camps Factual Survey; reconstructed by American PBS series Frontline in 1984 1946 United States Seeds of Destiny Gene Fowler Jr. Shows devastation and solicits relief funds 1946 France Nous Continuons English Title: We Live Again. Deals with child survivors. In Yiddish. 1947 Soviet Union The Nuremberg Trials Yelizaveta Svilova Soviet view of the Nuremberg Trials 1950s Year Country Title Director Notes 1956 France Nuit et brouillard Alain Resnais English title: Night and Fog. Written by Jean Cayrol, an escapee of Mauthausen. Music by Hanns Eisler. 1960s Year Country Title Director Notes 1960 West Germany Sweden Mein Kampf Erwin Leiser Swedish title: Den Blodiga tiden 1963 West Germany Chronik eines Mordes Joachim Hasler 1965 West Germany Der Vorletzte Akt Walter Krüttner English title: Last Act But One: Brundibar 1965 Canada Memorandum Donald Brittain and John Spotton French title: Pour mémoire 1965 Soviet Union Obyknovennyy fashizm Mikhail Romm English title: Ordinary Fascism 1966 United Kingdom Warsaw Ghetto 1967 Denmark Mordere iblandt os (TV) Henning Knudsen English title: Murderers Among Us 1968 United States The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich Jack Kaufman Based on William L. Shirer book The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich 1968 Poland Archeologia Andrzej Brzozowski 1969 France Switzerland West Germany Le Chagrin et la pitié Marcel Ophüls English title:The Sorrow and the Pity. Vichy France government collaboration with Nazi Germany during the war. 1970s Year Country Title Director Notes 1970 Netherlands Dingen die niet voorbijgaan Philo Bregstein English title: The past that lives 1972 West Germany Mendel Schainfelds zweite Reise nach Deutschland Hans-Dieter Grabe 1974 Israel The 81st Blow David Bergman, Jacques Ehrlich and Haim Gouri English title:The 81st Blow 1974 United Kingdom The World at War (TV) Michael Darlow Episode 20, "Genocide" (First broadcast 27 March 1974). The Final Solution (Parts One & Two). 1976 United Kingdom United States France West Germany The Memory of Justice Marcel Ophüls 4.6 hours long. Won Los Angeles Film Critics Special Award. 1977 West Germany Reinhard Heydrich - Manager des Terrors Heinz Schirk 1980s Year Country Title Director Notes 1980 West Germany Der Gelbe Stern Dieter Hildebrandt English title:The Yellow Star 1981 Australia The Hunter and the Hunted John Oakley 1982 United States Genocide Arnold Schwartzman Best Documentary Feature Oscar winner 1982 Sweden The Story of Chaim Rumkowski and the Jews of Lodz Peter Cohen and Bo Kuritzen 1982 United States Who Shall Live and Who Shall Die Laurence Jarvik Distributed by Kino International Corporation 1983 United States To Bear Witness Gavin P. Boyle 1983 United Kingdom Schindler: The Documentary (TV) Jon Blair Released in the US in 1994 as Schindler: The Real Story 1983 United States The Work Bernard Offen 1984 United States A Generation Apart Jack Fisher 1984 United States Kaddish Steve Brand Based on book by Dr. Randolph Braham 1985 Canada Dark Lullabies Irene Lilienheim Angelico and Abbey Jack Neidik Feature documentary 1985 Soviet Union Babiy Yar: Lessons of History 1985 West Germany Die Befreiung von Auschwitz Irmgard von zur Mühlen English title:Liberation of Auschwitz 1945 1985 West Germany Goethe in D. Manfred Vosz 1985 France Shoah Claude Lanzmann 9.5 hours long 1985 United States Say I'm a Jew[13] Pier Marton Jewish identity for Second Generation European Jews 1985 United States The Ties That Bind Su Friedrich 1986 Australia Paradise Camp Frank Heimans Concerns the Theresienstadt concentration camp 1986 United States Partisans of Vilna Joshua Waletzky Documentary produced by Aviva Kempner about the Jewish resistance in the Vilna Ghetto. 1986 West Germany Die Befreiung von Auschwitz Bengt von zur Mühlen 1988 Israel B'Glal Hamilhamah Hahi Orna Ben-Dor Niv English title: Because of That War 1988 United States France Hôtel Terminus: Klaus Barbie, sa vie et son temps Marcel Ophüls English title: Hôtel Terminus: The Life and Times of Klaus Barbie 1988 West Germany Mit 22 Jahren wollte man noch nicht sterben Rainer Ritzel 1988 France Poland Témoins Marcel Lozinski Polish title: Swiadkowie; English title: Witnesses: Anti-Semitism in Poland, 1946 1988 United States Voices from the Attic Debbie Goodstein 1989 Israel Hugo Yair Lev 1989 United States Lodz Ghetto Alan Adelson & Kate Taverna 1989 Sweden The Architecture of Doom Peter Cohen English title:The Architecture of Doom 1989 United States Yad Vashem: Preserving the Past to Ensure the Future Ray Errol Fox 1990s Year Country Title Director Notes 1990 United States C.A.N.D.L.E.S.: The Story of the Mengele Twins (TV) Gordon J. Murray 1991 France Premier convoi (TV) Jacky Assoun and Suzette Bloch 1991 United Kingdom Purple Triangles Martin Smith Describes the accounts of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi camps.[14] 1991 United Kingdom Chasing Shadows Naomi Gryn About the childhood experiences of Holocaust survivor Rabbi Hugo Gryn.[15] 1991 Canada A Day in the Warsaw Ghetto: A Birthday Trip in Hell Jack Kuper Based on the diaries of Warsaw ghetto inmates 1991 United States They Risked Their Lives: Rescuers of the Holocaust Gay Block 1992 United States Sequel to Lódz Ghetto Alan Adelson 1992 Poland Miejsce urodzenia Paweł Łoziński English title: Birthplace 1992 France La Rafle du Vel-d'Hiv, La Marche du siècle William Karel 1992 Japan The Visas That Saved Lives Alan Adelson 1992 Sweden Återkomster Joanna Helander and Bo Persson 1993 Canada Children of the Shadows Marc Cukier 1994 Israel Germany Balagan Andres Veiel Based on the play Arbeit macht frei by Smadar Jaaron and David Maayan 1994 United States Diamonds in the Snow Mira Reym Binford 1994 United States Choosing One's Way: Resistance in Auschwitz/Birkenau Ted Kay and Allen Secher 1994 United States The Holocaust: In Memory of Millions (TV) Brian Blake Hosted by Walter Cronkite 1994 Austria Die Kunst des Erinnerns - Simon Wiesenthal Johanna Heer and Werner Schmiedel English title: The Art of Remembrance - Simon Wiesenthal 1994 Spain Argentina La Memoria del agua Héctor Fáver English title: Memory of Water 1994 Unknown The Power of Conscience: The Danish Resistance and the Rescue of the Jews Alexandra Isles 1994 France Switzerland Tzedek Marek Halter 1994 Finland Vankileirien paratiisi Lisa Hovinheimo [16] 1995 United States United Kingdom Netherlands Anne Frank Remembered (TV) Jon Blair 1995 Israel Bottles in the Cellar Shmuel Imberman 1995 United States Children Remember the Holocaust (TV) Mark Gordon Hosted by Keanu Reeves 1995 United States One Survivor Remembers (TV) Kary Antholis 1995 Israel Reshimot Vanda (TV) Vered Berman 1995 Belgium Rhodes nostalgie (TV) Diane Perelsztejn 1996 France Drancy Avenir Arnaud des Pallières Deportations from Paris[17] 1996 United States My Knees Were Jumping: Remembering the Kindertransports Melissa Hacker 1996 United Kingdom Nuremberg Stephen Trombley 1996 United States Survivors of the Holocaust Allan Holzman 1996 United Kingdom The Nazis: A Warning from History Laurence Rees and Tilman Remme 1996 Germany Hitler's Henchmen Guido Knopp, Sebastian Dehnhardt, Jörg Müllner, Andreas Christoph Schmidt TV Mini-series, 2 seasons, 12 episodes 1997 Denmark United Kingdom Germany The Island on Bird Street Søren Kragh-Jacobsen Based on the book by Uri Orlev 1997 United States Blood Money: Switzerland's Nazi Gold Stephen Crisman 1997 Switzerland Grüningers Fall Richard Dindo Based on the book by Stefan Keller 1997 United States My Hometown Concentration Camp Bernard Offen 1997 United States In the Shadow of the Reich: Nazi Medicine John Michalczyk Based on the book by Stefan Keller 1997 Switzerland Journal de Rivesaltes 1941–1942 Jacqueline Veuve 1997 United States The Long Way Home Mark Jonathan Harris Narrated by Morgan Freeman 1997 United States The Lost Children of Berlin Elizabeth McIntyre Narrated by Anthony Hopkins 1997 United States Out Loud! Miriam Bjeirre 1997 Germany Das Prinzip Dora Claudette Coulanges & Rolf Coulanges 1997 United States Raising the Ashes Michael O'Keefe 1997 Israel Czech Republic Shahor Lavan Zeh Tzivoni Tamir Paul 1997 United States The Trial of Adolf Eichmann Describes the time period of Adolf Eichmann from his being brought to Israel till his execution. Also an insight is given into the mind of the mass murderer. 1997 France Germany Un vivant qui passe Claude Lanzmann English title: A Visitor from the Living 1997 Germany Unterwegs als sicherer Ort Dietrich Schubert English title On the Move Is a Safe Place 1997 Italy Memoria Ruggero Gabbai Selected for the "Berlin International Film Festival". Collection of about ninety eyewitnesses' interviews, the voices of the Italian survivors of the Shoah. 1998 Germany Czech Republic Diese Tage in Terezin Sibylle Schönemann English title: Those Days in Terezin 1998 Germany France Poland Fotoamator Dariusz Jablonski English title: Photographer; French title: Chronique couleur du ghetto de Łódź; German title: Der Fotograf 1998 United States The Last Days James Moll Won Academy Award for Documentary Feature 1998 United States A Letter Without Words Lisa Lewenz 1998 Belgium Der Judenmord Michel Alexandre 1998 Switzerland Nachrichten aus dem Untergrund Andreas Hoessli English title Underground Messengers 1998 United States Never Forget Sherrie Drummond Short 1998 United States A Sculpture of Love and Anguish: The Miami Beach Holocaust Memorial David Braman 1999 United States Burning Questions Michael Porembski 1999 United States The Children of Chabannes Lisa Gossels 1999 Switzerland Children of the Night Jolanta Dylewska 1999 United States Eyewitness Bert Van Bork 1999 Germany Flucht in den Dschungel Michael Juncker 1999 Canada Hidden Heroes Karen Pascal 1999 Switzerland Israel Martin Ra'anan Alexandrowicz 1999 Germany Mendel lebt – Wiederbegegnung mit Mendel Szajnfeld Hans-Dieter Grabe 1999 United States United Kingdom Mr. Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr. Errol Morris 1999 United States Process B-7815 Bernard Offen 1999 United States Tak for Alt: Survival of a Human Spirit Laura Bialis & Broderick Fox & Sarah Levy 1999 Israel France Germany Belgium Austria Un spécialiste, portrait d'un criminel moderne Eyal Sivan Documentary film directed by Rony Brauman and Eyal Sivan, originally released in 1999 to theaters worldwide. Made entirely out of the restored original video recordings of Adolf Eichmann's trial at Jerusalem edited down to 120 minutes, the film focuses especially on the desk murderer's psychology. No narration or commentary is used, albeit the material is at times edited visually and acoustically to disturbing effect, to reflect the most disturbing nature of the events related in the words of the witnesses, the court, and the defendant, and scored with disturbing musique concrete or ambient music. Official Selection of the 1999 Berlin International Film Festival,[18][19] winner of the Grimme-Preis in 2001.[18][19] Was criticized for tendentious editing making Eichmann appear in a more positive light and especially making prosecutor Gideon Hausner appear to display rude and unfair behavior in court, by Stewart Tryster, director of the Steven Spielberg Jewish Film Archive, in his 2005 documentary Editing the Truth Away: The Eichmann Trial and The Specialist .[20][21] Released on French VHS and DVD under its original title, on NTSC VHS as Adolf Eichmann: The Specialist, on Region 1 DVD as The Specialist: Portrait of a Modern Criminal, and on German VHS as Ein Spezialist. All of these home video editions are currently out-of-print. 1999 United States Witness: Voices from the Holocaust Joshua M. Greene & Shiva Kumar 1999 Germany Drei deutsche Mörder. Aufzeichnungen über die Banalität des Bösen Ebbo Demant 1999 Poland ... gdzie jest mój starszy syn Kain Agnieszka Arnold Considers Jedwabne pogrom 2000s Year Country Title Director Notes 2000 United Kingdom Auschwitz: The Final Witnesses Sheldon Lazarus 2000 Spain Cerca del Danubio Felipe Vega 2000 United States Fighter Amir Bar-Lev 2000 United States Typhoons' Last Storm Lawrence Bond 2000 Israel Hazehut Ha'Avuda Shel Hanita Vered Berman 2000 United Kingdom The Holocaust on Trial Leslie Woodhead 2000 United Kingdom United States Into the Arms of Strangers: Stories of the Kindertransport Mark Jonathan Harris 2000 United States Paragraph 175 Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman Documentary about gays and the Holocaust 2000 Israel Reshimat Ahava David Fisher 2000 Germany Das Himmler-Projekt Romuald Karmakar 2001 United States Exodus to Berlin Jeff Kamen and Peter Laufer 2001 United States Holocaust: New York Tolerance Center Scott Goldstein 2001 Germany Eine Liebe in Auschwitz Thilo Thielke & Jens Nicolai 2001 Poland Śmierć Zygelbojma Dżamila Ankiewicz 2001 Poland Sąsiedzi Agnieszka Arnold Concerns Jedwabne pogrom 2001 France Sobibor, 14 octobre 1943, 16 heures Claude Lanzmann English title: Sobibor, Oct. 14, 1943, 4 p.m. 2001 Canada Struma Radu Gabrea 2001 Slovakia Svedok Dušan Hudec 2002 Illusion Concerns Kurt Gerron 2002 United States Last Dance Mirra Bank 2002 Poland Pamiętam Marcel Lozinski English title: I Remember 2002 United States Canada Germany United Kingdom Prisoner of Paradise Malcolm Clarke & Stuart Sender 2002 United States Sudbina mi nije dala da odem Dominik Sedlar & Jakov Sedlar English title: Fate Did Not Let Me Go 2002 Canada Undying Love Helene Klodawsky 2003 United States Berga: Soldiers of Another War Charles Guggenheim 2003 United States Denmark Den Danske løsning Karen Cantor & Camilla Kjærulff English title:The Danish Solution: The Rescue of the Jews in Denmark 2003 Australia Long Shadows: Stories from a Jewish Home Kate Hampel 2003 United States Luboml: My Heart Remembers Eileen Douglas & Ron Steinman 2003 Germany Mariannes Heimkehr Stefan Röttger & Gert Monheim 2003 Germany Land der Vernichtung Romuald Karmakar 2004 United States A is for Auschwitz: A Weekend with My Grandparents 2004 Canada Against the Odds Jedrzej Jonasz 2004 United States Imaginary Witness: Hollywood and the Holocaust Daniel Anker 2004 Poland Hawaii and the Holocaust Bernard Offen 2004 United States Paper Clips Elliot Berlin & Joe Fab About the Paper Clips Project 2004 Italy La fuga degli innocenti Leone Pompucci 2004 Germany Wege der Tübinger Juden. Eine Spurensuche Ulrike Baumgärtner 2004 United Kingdom Auschwitz: The Nazis and the 'Final Solution' Also known as Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State Dominic Sutherland, Martina Balazova and Detlef Siebert Companion book: Auschwitz: A New History 2004 Germany Luxembourg Czech Republic The Ninth Day Volker Schlöndorff Based on a portion of Pfarrerblock 25487 (ISBN 2-87963-286-2), the diary of Father Jean (1907–1994) 2005 Chile Holocausto:Tercera Generación Daniel Segal & Daniel Halpern 2005 Germany Mit dem Mut der Verzweifelten – Jüdischer Widerstand gegen Hitler Rena Giefer & Thomas Giefer 2005 Germany Slovakia 2 oder 3 Dinge, die ich von ihm weiß Malte Ludin English title: 2 or 3 Things I Know About Him — Ludin's family's reaction to their father's role in sending Jews to Auschwitz 2005 Hungary Process (TV) Péter Muszatics 2005 Israel A Treasure in Auschwitz (TV) Yahaly Gat 2005 Germany Wenn lang die Bilder schon verblassen... KZ Theresienstadt - Propagandafilm und Wirklichkeit Thilo Pohle 2005 Germany Winterkinder - Die schweigende Generation Jens Schanze 2005 Hungary Sorstalanság (Fateless) Lajos Koltai 2006 France Amants des hommes Isabelle Darmengeat[22] English title: Men lovers 2006 France Nuremberg: The Nazis Facing their Crimes Christian Delage 2006 Canada Once a Nazi... Frederic Bohbot & Evan Beloff 2006 Netherlands Black Book Paul Verhoeven 2006 United States Borrowing Time Robert Allan Black 2006 United States Journey to Justice Steve Palackdharry 2006 United States Knocking Joel Engardio and Tom Shepard 2006 Italy La Strada di Levi Davide Ferrario 2006 Germany Der letzte Zug Joseph Vilsmaier, Dana Vávrová 2006 Austria Germany The Counterfeiters Stefan Ruzowitzky 2006 United Kingdom Kz Rex Bloomstein Documents the attitudes and experiences of tourists and students visiting Mauthausen concentration camp, their guides, and the townspeople of Mauthausen. 2007-2010 Czech Republic Forgotten transports Lukáš Přibyl Forgotten Transports to Estonia (2007), 85 min. Forgotten Transports to Latvia (2007), 85 min. Forgotten Transports to Belarus (2008), 85 min. Forgotten Transports to Poland (2010), 85 min. 2008 Israel Classmates of Anne Frank Eyal Boers 2008 United States Scrapbooks from Hell: The Auschwitz Albums Erik Nelson 2008 Poland Anioł Śmierci (The Angel of Death) Marta Mironowicz Documentary on Josef Mengele's experiments. 2008 Germany Gerdas Schweigen Britta Wauer 2009 Israel Defamation Yoav Shamir 2009 France Einsatzgruppen, les commandos de la mort (Nazi Death Squads) Michaël Prazan 4x55 min. 2009 United Kingdom The Secret Diary of the Holocaust[23] Alexander Marengo Rutka Laskier's diary 2009 France Das Reich, Hitler's death squads Michaël Prazan 2009 Germany Der weiße Rabe – Max Mannheimer Carolin Otto 2010s Year Country Title Director Notes 2010 Canada Song of the Lodz Ghetto David Kaufman 2010 Israel Germany A Film Unfinished Yael Hersonski 2010 Canada Brazil Nazi Hunters Tim Wolochatiuk TV Mini-series, 13 episodes 2010 France Le Rapport Karski Claude Lanzmann An extended interview with Polish resistance fighter Jan Karski, consisting largely of footage gathered for but not included in Claude Lanzmann's epic 9-hour documentary Shoah. 2011 Germany Auschwitz Uwe Boll 2011 Israel Germany The Flat Arnon Goldfinger 2011 Turkey Turkish Passport Burak Arlıel A documentary about the Jews who were rescued by Turkish diplomats through having been given Turkish diplomatic passports. 2011 Israel Germany Hitler's Children Chanoch Zeevi 2011 United States Poland Bulgaria Israel Germany Empty Boxcars Ed Gaffney Tells the story of the survival of over 50,000 Jews in World War II and the mass murder of 11,393 Jews from territories under Bulgarian control in Greece and Macedonia. Footage of the trains renders the crime visible.[24] 2012 Austria Dann bin ich ja ein Mörder Walter Manoschek The subject of the film is Adolf Storms and the Deutsch Schützen massacre 2012 United States Bearing Witness: The Voices of Our Survivors Heather Elliott-Famularo http://www.bearingwitnesstoledo.com 2012 United States Misa's Fugue Sean Gaston www.misasfugue.com 2012 Germany 204 AR-Z 269/60Y Die Protokolle Wolfgang Jost & Winfried Wallat 2012 United States No Place on Earth Janet Tobias Documentary about a group of Jews who lived in caves in Ukraine for nearly 18 months to escape the Holocaust. 2012 United States REFUGE: Stories of the Selfhelp Home Ethan Bensinger Documentary about the last generation of Holocaust Survivors and Refugees at Chicago's Selfhelp Home 2012 United States The Resort Galina Kalashnikova www.codeoflifeproductions.com 2012 Netherlands Belgium United States Transport XX to Auschwitz Karen Lynne & Richard Bloom 2012 United States Hiding Halina Jeff MacIntyre 9 out of 10 Jewish children perished during the Holocaust. Those who survived were hidden. "Hiding Halina" is a documentary about a little girl who beat the odds. 2013 Austria Germany Das Radikal Böse Stefan Ruzowitzky 2013 United Kingdom The Unseen Holocaust Mike Ibeji 2013 Canada United States United Kingdom The Lady in Number 6 Malcolm Clarke 2013 Italy The Longest Journey Ruggero Gabbai A documentary about the last days of the Jews of Rhodes. 2013 France Last of the Unjust Claude Lanzmann https://web.archive.org/web/20121028182739/http://www.le-pacte.com/international/upcoming-films/single/the-last-of-the-unjust/ 2014 Poland Warsaw Uprising Jan Komasa Documentary film using archived and colorized footage of Warsaw uprising. Polish title: Powstanie Warszawskie 2014 France Izieu, Children in the Shoah Romain Icard 2014 France Jusqu'au dernier, La destruction des Juifs d'Europe William Karel, Blanche Finger 8 episodes x 52 minutes English title: Annihilation - The Destruction of Europe's Jews 2014 Germany Forbidden Films Felix Moeller Between 1933 and 1945, 1200 feature films were made in Germany. After the war the Allies banned over 300 films as propaganda. There are still restrictions on over 40 of these films today. 2014 United States Berlin Calling Nigel Dick A punk fan from Los Angeles traces her father's journey back to the concentration camp in Theresienstadt where he spent two years of his life. 2014 Israel Germany Farewell Herr Schwarz Yael Reuveny An Israeli woman living in Germany, granddaughter of a survivor, explores the ramifications of discovering a great-uncle who, unbeknownst to the family in Israel, lived out his life in East Germany near the camp he was held in. 2014 United Kingdom Night Will Fall Andre Singer 2014 Germany Austria Israel The Decent One Vanessa Lapa 2014 France Shoah, les Oubliés de l’Histoire Véronique Lagoarde-Ségot 2014 Israel Czech Republic Slovakia United States Gisi Natasha Dudinski The story of Gisi Fleischmann, a woman who believed she could stop the Holocaust if only she managed to raise enough money. 2015 United Kingdom What Our Fathers Did: A Nazi Legacy David Evans 2016 Germany Austerlitz Sergei Loznitsa Documentary showing how tourists act while visiting the Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps. 2017 Israel Ghetto Uprising - The Untold Story Yuval Haimovich-Zuser A film revolving around the Warsaw Ghetto uprising. 2017 France Josef Mengele: Hunting A Nazi Criminal Emmanuel Amara 2017 United States The Zookeeper's Wife 2018 United States The Number on Great-Grandpa's Arm Amy Schatz The film features a conversation between a ten year old and his Grandfather, a Holocaust survivor. 2018 United States Who Will Write Our History Roberta Grossman 2018 Germany Der Letzte Jollyboy Hans-Erich Viet 2018 United States Operation Finale Chris Weitz Dramatization of Mossad's clandestine operation to kidnap Adolf Eichmann from Argentina for his trial in Jerusalem. 2018 Canada The Accountant of Auschwitz Matthew Shoychet The trial of Oskar Gröning, who worked as accountant in Auschwitz, responsible for the murder of over 300,000 Jews.[25] 2018 South Africa The Secret Survivor Johnathan Andrews After nearly 70 years of silence, Veronica Phillips, a survivor of Ravensbrück, decides to tell her story for future generations to learn from her tragic experiences during and after the Holocaust.[26] 2019 Hungary A Pásztor László Illés English title: The Shepherd. The main character is an old shepherd, who lives alone on a ranch. After his daughter was killed by Nazis, he decided in his grief to save as many Jewish lives as possible. 2019 Israel Germany Made in Auschwitz: The Untold Story of Block 10 Sylvia Nagel, Sonya Winterberg The story of the over 400 young women who underwent medical experimentation in Auschwitz under Carl Clauberg, an enterprising, sadistic gynaecologist. 2019 Germany Free State Midpoint Kai Ehlers & Domenico Distilo The film reports from a chapter of the Nazi regime - eugenics - that has not been covered extensively from a subjective perspective, due to a lack of eloquent witnesses and a forum for their few voices. 2019 United States No Asylum: The Untold Chapter of Anne Frank's Story Paula Fouce The discovery of the lost letters of Anne Frank's father, Otto, reveal an unknown chapter of their family's life. 2020s Year Country Title Directors Notes 2020 Germany Getrennt durch Stacheldraht – Jugendjahre im KZ Gusen Julia & Robert Grantner 2020 United Kingdom Final Account Luke Holland 2020 France Ravensbrück, le camp oublié Aurélie Chaigneau 2020 Japan Inferno: Letters from Auschwitz Documentary about notes which were written by Jews who were part of a special unit called the Sonderkommando 2020 United Kingdom Route to Paradise Thomas Gardner 2021 Netherlands Greetings from the death camp Manfred Van Eijk 2022 Germany The Wannsee Conference: The Documentary Jörg Müllner 2022 United States The U.S. and the Holocaust Ken Burns, Lynn Novick, Sarah Botstein See also List of World War II films List of films made in the Third Reich List of Allied propaganda films of World War II Imaginary Witness: Hollywood and the Holocaust Further reading Reimer, R.C.; Reimer, C.J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Holocaust Cinema. Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7986-7. References  Reimer, R.C.; Reimer, C.J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Holocaust Cinema. Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts. Scarecrow Press. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-8108-7986-7.  Chaplin, Charlie (1964). My Autobiography. New York, Simon and Schuster. p. 392. Had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator, I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis  Wilson, Kristi M.; Crowder-Taraborrelli, Tomás F., eds. (2012). Film and Genocide. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780299285647.  Reimer, R.C.; Reimer, C.J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Holocaust Cinema. Scarecrow Press. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-8108-7986-7.  "Border Street (1948) Release Info". IMDB. Retrieved 2018-10-19.  "Schindler's List website". Archived from the original on 2010-06-07.  "The Seventh Room (1996)". IMDb. Retrieved 5 December 2016.  Síla lidskosti - Nicholas Winton at IMDb  Geleman Educational Foundation: Nicholas Winton.  [1] Archived December 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine  "Holocaust Era in Croatia: Jasenovac 1941-1945". Ushmm.org. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2013-04-22.  "Watch The Full Program Online | Memory Of The Camps | Frontline". PBS. Retrieved 2013-04-22.  "Say I'm a Jew by Pier Marton (1985) – 28 min. | Pier Marton". 5 August 2012.  Purple Triangles (1991). IMDb.  "Chasing Shadows (1991)" – via www.imdb.com.  Vankileirien paratiisi, retrieved 2018-12-27  The film has been described as an « enquête historique, poétique et philosophique sur les traces de l'extermination des Juifs dans Paris et sa banlieue aujourd'hui » — French Wikipedia.  The Specialist, portrait of a modern criminal 1999, eyalsivan.info (click Awards tab at the top of the article)  Un Spécialiste - Portrait d'un Criminel Moderne // The Specialist, Portrait of a Modern Criminal Archived 2014-02-13 at the Wayback Machine, Doc Aliance: Votre Cinéma Documentaire en Ligne (click drop-downs for Fesivals and Prix)  (2013). Post script to June 6th posting "...watching Eichman", NYU Orphan Film Project, The Orphan Film Symposium: Archivists, academics, & artists saving, studying, & screening neglected moving images, June 20, 2013  Tryster, Stewart (2011). Audio recording (provided by New York University) of a lecture by Stewart Tryster outlining his criticisms of the film Un spécialiste, delivered at the Sorbonne conference Le procès Eichmann: Réceptions, médiations, postérités, June 7–9, 2011 (42 min., mp3)  Amants des hommes  BBC 2009, The Secret Diary of the Holocaust retrieved 21 October 2017  https://www.macedonianfilmfestival.com/films/Empty-boxcars  "The Accountant of Auschwitz (2018)".  "Veronica Phillips The Secret Survivor". United World Nation. 2018-08-06. Retrieved 2021-02-28. vte The Holocaust By territory AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakia Bohemia and MoraviaSlovakiaSudetenlandDenmarkEstoniaFrance and colonies TunisiaGermanyGreece Bulgarian-occupied GreeceHungaryItaly and colonies LibyaLatviaLithuaniaLuxembourgNetherlandsNorwayPolandRomaniaSoviet Union BelarusRussiaUkraineYugoslavia CroatiaNorth MacedoniaSerbia Overview Evidence and documentationContemporary knowledgeHidden childrenInternational responses JapanPortugalSpainSwedenTurkeyUnited StatesVaticanTimeline Camps and ghettos Concentration AuschwitzBergen-BelsenBuchenwaldDachauFlossenbürgGross-RosenHerzogenbuschHinzertKaiserwaldKauenKraków-PłaszówMajdanekMauthausen and GusenMittelbau-DoraNatzweiler-Struthof NeuengammeRavensbrückSachsenhausenStutthofVaivaraWarsaw Extermination Auschwitz II-BirkenauBelzecChełmnoMajdanekSobiborTreblinka Transit beBreendonkMechelenfrGursDrancyitBolzanoRisiera di San SabbanlAmersfoortSchoorlWesterborkskSereď Methods EinsatzgruppenGas vanGas chamberExtermination through labourHuman experimentationDeath marches Nazi units SS-TotenkopfverbändeConcentration Camps InspectoratePolitische AbteilungSanitätswesen Ghettos (list) Poland BiałystokKrakówŁódźLublinLwówRadomWarsaw Elsewhere BudapestKovnoMinskRigaTheresienstadtVilna Judenrat Jewish Ghetto PoliceReich Association of Jews in GermanyÚstredňa Židov Victims Jews Roundups frIzieuMarseilleVel' d'Hiv Pogroms KristallnachtBucharestDorohoiIașiJedwabneKaunasLvivTykocinWąsosz "Final Solution" Wannsee ConferenceOperation ReinhardHolocaust trains Mass executions EinsatzgruppenBabi YarHarvest FestivalKamianets-PodilskyiMaly TrostenetsNinth FortOdessaPiaśnicaPonaryRumbula Resistance Jewish partisans Bielski partisansGhetto uprisings WarsawBiałystokCzęstochowa Rescue Aid and Rescue CommitteeAttack on the twentieth convoyKastner trainLe Chambon-sur-LignonDanish undergroundWorking GroupŻegota Others Romani people (gypsies)PolesSoviet POWsSlavs in Eastern EuropeHomosexualsPeople with disabilitiesSerbsJehovah's Witnesses Responsibility List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust Organizations Nazi PartySchutzstaffel (SS)Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) Referat IV B4Sicherheitsdienst (SD)Ordnungspolizei (Orpo)Waffen-SSWehrmacht Units EinsatzgruppenPolice RegimentsOrder Police battalions Collaborators Arajs KommandoLithuanian Security PoliceNederlandsche SSRollkommando HamannSpecial BrigadesTopf and SonsTrawnikisUkrainian Auxiliary PoliceYpatingasis būrys Early elementsAftermathRemembrance Early elements Nazi racial policyNazi eugenicsNuremberg LawsHaavara AgreementHitler's prophecyJewish war conspiracy theoryJewish emigration KindertransportMadagascar PlanNisko PlanForced euthanasia (Action T4) Aftermath Depopulated shtetlsHolocaust survivors Sh'erit ha-PletahBrichaListPostwar violenceNazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) LawNuremberg trialsEichmann trialHolocaust restitution Reparations AgreementHolocaust denial trivialization History and memory AcademiaBooks and other resourcesDays of remembranceEducation FilmsMemorials and museumsUniquenessHolocaust humorRighteous Among the NationsYad VashemYizkor books"Never again" Categories: Holocaust filmsDocumentary films about the HolocaustLists of films by topicLists of World War II filmsThe Holocaust-related lists
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