SINGER AM CLOCK RADIO HE-5060 mid century rare solid state Taiwan seafoam green

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Seller: sidewaysstairsco ✉️ (1,180) 100%, Location: Santa Ana, California, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 204080854167 SINGER AM CLOCK RADIO HE-5060 mid century rare solid state Taiwan seafoam green. It's a solid state AM clock radio from The Singer Company. Yes, that Singer, the brand synonymous with everything sewing. The HE-5060 model AM clock radio has a wonderful design that features a soft pale seafoam green colored casing, clear acrylic front panels, chrome accents, and chrome legs with dot feet. The green could be described as pale sage-mint as well. The black colored radio and clock faces contrast nicely against the chrome and pale seafoam colors. Between the two front panels is a vertical section of stripes that create a green to pale blue gradient. Quality working Telechron clock with movement made in Japan. Condition: Broken/not working. For parts or repair only. Clock is in working order (requires 1 "AA" battery). The power cord has been cut. There's visible wear/damage on the casing, and debris and damage inside. Please see photos. "Singer Corporation is an American manufacturer of consumer sewing machines, first established as I. M. Singer & Co. in 1851 by Isaac M. Singer with New York lawyer Edward C. Clark. Best known for its sewing machines, it was renamed Singer Manufacturing Company in 1865, then the Singer Company in 1963. It is based in La Vergne, Tennessee, near Nashville. Its first large factory for mass production was built in 1863 in Elizabeth, New Jersey.... History A Singer 1851 sewing machine Singer's original design was the first practical sewing machine for general domestic use. It incorporated the basic eye-pointed needle and lock stitch, developed by Elias Howe, who won a patent-infringement suit against Singer in 1854. Singer's patent model for his sewing machine Singer obtained patent no. 8294 in August 1851 for an improved sewing machine that included a circular feed wheel, thread controller, and power transmitted by gear wheels and shafting.[2] Singer consolidated enough patents in the field to enable him to engage in mass production, and by 1860 his company was the largest manufacturer of sewing machines in the world. In 1885 Singer produced its first "vibrating shuttle" sewing machine, an improvement over contemporary transverse shuttle designs (see bobbin drivers). The Singer company began to market its machines internationally in 1855 and won first prize at the Paris world's fair that year. The company demonstrated the first workable electric sewing machine at the Philadelphia electric exhibition in 1889[citation needed] and began mass-producing domestic electric machines in 1910. Singer was also a marketing innovator and a pioneer in promoting the use of installment payment plans. Early sales figures Year     1853     1859     1867     1871     1873     1876 Units     810     10,953     43,053     181,260     232,444     262,316 Source:[3] Old Singer logo By 1876, Singer was claiming cumulative sales of two million sewing machines and had put the two millionth machine on display in Philadelphia.[4] Singer in Scotland Workers leaving Singer sewing machine factory on Clydebank In 1867, the Singer Company decided that the demand for their sewing machines in the United Kingdom was sufficiently high to open a local factory in Glasgow on John Street. The Vice President of Singer, George Ross McKenzie selected Glasgow because of its iron making industries, cheap labour, and shipping capabilities.[5] Demand for sewing machines outstripped production at the new plant and by 1873, a new larger factory was completed on James Street, Bridgeton. By that point, Singer employed over 2,000 people in Scotland, but they still could not produce enough machines. In 1882, McKenzie, by then President-elect of the Singer Manufacturing Company, undertook the ground breaking ceremony on 46 acres (19 ha) of farmland at Kilbowie, Clydebank. Originally, two main buildings were constructed, each 800-foot (240 m) long, 50-foot (15 m) wide and three storeys high. These were connected by three wings. Built above the middle wing was a 200-foot (61 m) tall clock tower with the "Singer" name clearly displayed for all to see for miles around. A total of 2.75 miles (4.43 km) of railway lines were laid throughout the factory to connect the different departments such as the boiler room, foundry, shipping and the lines to main railway stations. Sir Robert McAlpine was the building contractor and the factory was designed to be fire proof with water sprinklers, making it the most modern factory in Europe at that time.[6] With nearly a million square feet of space and almost 7,000 employees, it was possible to produce on average 13,000 machines a week, making it the largest sewing machine factory in the world. The Clydebank factory was so productive that in 1905, the U.S. Singer Company set up and registered the Singer Manufacturing Company Ltd. in the United Kingdom. Demand continued to exceed production, so each building was extended upwards to 6 storeys high. A railway station with the company name was established in 1907 with connections to adjoining towns and central Glasgow to assist in transporting the workforce to the facility. Increased productivity came from 'scientific management' techniques which increased workloads whilst keeping salary overheads low, and in 1911, a mass walk out of 10,000 workers, the 'Singer Strike',[7] took place in support of twelve women polishers, who had seen three staff dismissed, but the workload remained the same with no extra pay.[8] It was significant in its recognition of the rights of women workers[9] and 'collective bargaining' and predated the labour movement known as 'Red Clydeside'.[10][11][12] A centenary film was made by the BBC about the female workers who stood up to the American management.[13] In the First World War, sewing machine production gave way to munitions. The Singer Clydebank factory received over 5000 government contracts, and made 303 million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes. Its labour force of 14,000 was about 70% female at war's end.[14] From its opening in 1884 until 1943, the Kilbowie factory produced approximately 36,000,000 sewing machines. Singer was the world leader and sold more machines than all the other makers added together. In 1913, the factory shipped 1.3 million machines. The late 1950s and 1960s saw a period of significant change at the Clydebank factory. In 1958, Singer reduced production at their main American plant and transferred 40% of this production to the Clydebank factory in a bid to reduce costs. Between 1961 and 1964, the Clydebank factory underwent a £4 million modernization program which saw the Clydebank factory cease the production of cast iron machines and focus on the production of aluminium machines for western markets. As part of this modernisation programme, the famous Singer Clock was demolished in 1963. At the height of its productiveness in the mid 1960s, Singer employed over 16,000 workers but by the end of that decade, compulsory redundancies were taking place and 10 years later the workforce was down to 5,000. Financial problems and lack of orders forced the world's largest sewing machine factory to close in June 1980, bringing to an end over 100 years of sewing machine production in Scotland. The complex of buildings was demolished in 1998.[15] An archive about the factory, the strike and the history of its business in Scotland, is regarded as a recognised collection of national significance by Museums Galleries Scotland.[16] Painted Singer Sewing sign in Kingston, New York A Singer sewing machine with electric retrofit Marketing Advertising photograph by Paolo Monti, Milan 1963 The Singer sewing machine was the first complex standardized technology to be mass marketed. It was not the first sewing machine, and its patent in 1851 led to a patent battle with Elias Howe, inventor of the lockstitch machine. This eventually resulted in a patent sharing accord among the major firms.[17] Marketing strategies included focusing on the manufacturing industry,[18] gender identity,[19] credit plans,[20] and "hire purchases."[17] Singer's marketing emphasized the role of women and their relationship to the home, evoking ideals of virtue, modesty, and diligence.[21] Though the sewing machine represented liberation from arduous hand sewing, it chiefly benefited those sewing for their families and themselves. Tradespeople relying on sewing as a livelihood still suffered from poor wages, which dropped further in response to the time savings gained by machine sewing.[17] Singer offered credit purchases and rent-to-own arrangements, allowing people to rent a machine with the rental payments applied to the eventual purchase of the machine,[17] and sold globally through the use of direct-sales door-to-door canvassers to demonstrate and sell the machines.[22] World War II During World War II, the company suspended sewing machine production to take on government contracts for weapons manufacturing. Factories in the United States supplied the American forces with Norden bomb sights and M1 Carbine rifle receivers, while factories in Germany provided their armed forces with weapons.[23] In 1939, the company was given a production study by the government to draw plans and develop standard raw material sizes for building M1911A1 pistols. The following April 17, Singer was given an educational order of 500 units with serial numbers S800001 – S800500. The educational order was a program set up by the Ordnance Board in the U.S. to teach companies without gun-making experience to manufacture weapons. After the 500 units were delivered to the U.S. government, the management decided to produce artillery and bomb sights. The pistol tooling and manufacturing machines were transferred to Remington Rand whilst some went to the Ithaca Gun Company. Approximately 1.75 million 1911A1 pistols were produced during World War II, making original Singer pistols relatively rare and collectable.[24] In December 1940, Singer won a contract to produce the M5 Antiaircraft Director, a version of the UK-designed Kerrison Predictor. The US Army had previously adopted the M7 Computing Sight for their 37 mm gun M1 anti-aircraft guns, but the gun proved temperamental and Sperry Corporation was too busy producing other systems to build the required number of M7's. After testing in September 1940, the Army accepted the Kerrison as the M5, and later, the Bofors 40 mm gun in place of the M1.[25] Post-war Singer resumed developing sewing machines in 1946.[26] After the not so well received Singer 206k, a first attempt in zig-zag machines, starting production in 1936, They introduced one of their most popular, highest-quality and fully-optioned machines in 1957, the 401 Slant-o-Matic. 2011 marked their 160th anniversary. Currently, they manufacture computerized, heavy duty, embroidery, quilting, serging, and mechanical sewing machines.[27] In 2017, they launched their new Singer Sewing Assistant App.[28] Diversification Singer in Malta In the 1960s, the company diversified, acquiring the Friden calculator company in 1965 and General Precision Equipment Corporation in 1968. GPE included Librascope, The Kearfott Company, Inc, and Link Flight Simulation. In 1968 also, Singer bought out GPS Systems and added it to the Link Simulations Systems Division (LSSD). This unit produced nuclear power plant control room simulators in Silver Spring, Maryland: Tech Road building for Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Parkway building for Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) and later moved to Broken Land Parkway in Columbia, Maryland while flight simulators were produced in Binghamton, New York. In 1987, corporate raider Paul Bilzerian made a "greenmail" run at Singer, and ended up owning the company when no "White Knight" rescuer appeared. To recover his money, Bilzerian sold off parts of the company. Kearfott was split, the Kearfott Guidance & Navigation Corporation was sold to the Astronautics Corporation of America in 1988 and the Electronic Systems Division was purchased the Plessey Company in 1988 and renamed Plessey Electronic Systems (and then acquired by GEC-Marconi in 1990, renamed GEC-Marconi Electronic Systems, and later incorporated into BAE Systems). The four Link divisions developing and supporting industrial and flight simulation were sold to Canadian Avionics Electronics (CAE) and became CAE-Link. The nuclear power simulator division became S3 Technologies, and later GSE Systems, and relocated to Eldersburg, MD. The Sewing Machine Division was sold in 1989 to Semi-Tech Microelectronics, a publicly traded Toronto-based company.[29] For several years in the 1970s, Singer set up a national sales force for CAT phototypesetting machines (of UNIX troff fame) made by another Massachusetts company, Graphic Systems Inc.[30] This division was purchased by Wang Laboratories in 1978. 20th century Woman with Singer sewing machine in East Timor (2017) Sales and profits grew until the 1940s. The market was affected in several ways. The USA market matured after WWII. Japanese manufacturers ate into the market with zig-zag sewing machines.[31] Under the leadership of Donald P. Kircher, Singer diversified into markets such as office equipment, defense, and aerospace. Revenue of which 90% of revenue from sewing machines was reduced to 35% after diversification. In 1978 Singer moved its HQ from Rockefeller Plaza to Stamford, Conn. This relocation moved 430 jobs to the new location.[32] During the 1980s Singer sewing machine markets were being hit with Japanese machines and European brands including Bernina, Pfaff, and Viking. In 1986, the original Singer company spun off its sewing machine business under the name SSMC. In 1989 Semi-Tech Global purchased SSMC renaming SSMC back to Singer.[33] Semi-Tech Global incorporated Singer into Singer N.V. based in Netherlands Antilles owned by the Hong Kong holding company. Singer N.V. filed bankruptcy in 1999 and was acquired by Kohlberg & Company.[34] In 1997, Singer (Singer N.V.) US operations moved its consumer products to LaVergne, Tennessee. This location also served its wholesale distribution of sewing machines and parts.[34] In 2006 The parent company of Singer - Kohlberg & Company, acquired Husqvarna and Pfaff brands. This merged the three brands into the current company the SVP Group.[35] Its main competitors are Baby Lock, Bernina, Brother, Janome, Juki and Aisin Seiki. The tower of the former Singer Building in Manhattan, the tallest in the world at the time of its construction Singer House in Saint Petersburg, Russia Singer was heavily involved in Manhattan real estate in the 1800s through Edward C. Clark, a founder of the company. Clark had built The Dakota apartments and other Manhattan buildings in the 1880s. In 1900, the Singer company retained Ernest Flagg to build a 12-story loft building at Broadway and Prince Street in Lower Manhattan. The building is now considered architecturally notable, and it has been restored.[36] The 47-story Singer Building, completed in 1908, was also designed by Flagg, who designed two landmark residences for Bourne. Constructed during Bourne's tenure, the Singer Building (demolished in 1968) was then the tallest building in the world and was the tallest building to be intentionally demolished until the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were destroyed in the September 11 attacks.[37] At their Clydebank factory, Singer built a 200 feet (61 m) clock tower, which stood over the central wing and had the reputation of being the largest four-faced clock in the world. Each face weighed five tons, and it took four men fifteen minutes twice a week to keep it wound.[38] The tower was demolished in 1963,17 years before the factory closed in 1980 and is now the site of Clydebank Business Park. Singer railway station, built to serve the factory, is only one of two railway stations in the UK, named after a factory, and is still in operation today. The famous Singer House, designed by architect Pavel Suzor, was built in 1902–1904 at Nevsky Prospekt in Saint Petersburg as headquarters of the Russian branch of the company. This modern style building (situated just opposite the Kazan Cathedral) is officially recognized as an object of Russian historical-cultural heritage. In 2018, a large factory fire destroyed a Singer distribution office and warehouse in Seven Hills, Sydney. Singer had manufactured sewing machines in Australia at a purpose-built plant in the western Sydney suburb of Penrith, from 1959 until 1967. List of company presidents     Isaac M. Singer (1851–1863)     Inslee Hopper (1863–1875)     Edward C. Clark (1875–1882)     George Ross McKenzie (1882–1889)     Frederick Gilbert Bourne (1889–1905)     Sir Douglas Alexander (1905–1949)     Milton C. Lightner (1949–1958)     Donald P. Kircher (1958–1975)     Joseph Bernard Flavin (1975–1987)     Paul Bilzerian (1987–1989)[39]     Iftikhar Ahmed (1989–1997)[40]     Stephen H. Goodman (1998–2004)" (wikipedia.org) "Solid-state electronics means semiconductor electronics: electronic equipment using semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits (ICs).[1][2][3][4][5] The term is also used as an adjective for devices in which semiconductor electronics which have no moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the solid-state relay in which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay, or the solid-state drive (SSD) a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to replace hard disk drives, which store data on a rotating disk.[6] The term "solid state" became popular in the beginning of the semiconductor era in the 1960s to distinguish this new technology based on the transistor, in which the electronic action of devices occurred in a solid state, from previous electronic equipment that used vacuum tubes, in which the electronic action occurred in a gaseous state. A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting of electrons or holes moving within a solid crystalline piece of semiconducting material such as silicon, while the thermionic vacuum tubes it replaced worked by controlling current conducted by a gas of particles, electrons or ions, moving in a vacuum within a sealed tube. Although the first solid state electronic device was the cat's whisker detector, a crude semiconductor diode invented around 1904, solid state electronics really started with the invention of the transistor in 1947.[7] Before that, all electronic equipment used vacuum tubes, because vacuum tubes were the only electronic components that could amplify—an essential capability in all electronics. The transistor, which was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Laboratories in 1947,[8] could also amplify, and replaced vacuum tubes. The first transistor Hi-Fi system was developed by engineers at GE, and demonstrated at the University of Philadelphia in 1955.[9] In terms of commercial production, The Fisher TR-1 was the first "All Transistor" preamplifier, which became available mid-1956.[10] In 1961, a company named Transis-tronics released a solid state amplifier, the TEC S-15.[11] The replacement of bulky, fragile, energy-hungry vacuum tubes by transistors in the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution not just in technology but in people's habits, making possible the first truly portable consumer electronics such as the transistor radio, cassette tape player, walkie-talkie and quartz watch, as well as the first practical computers and mobile phones. Other examples of solid state electronic devices are the microprocessor chip, LED lamp, solar cell, charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor used in cameras, and semiconductor laser. " (wikipedia.org) "Spring green is a color that was traditionally considered to be on the yellow side of green, but in modern computer systems based on the RGB color model is halfway between cyan and green on the color wheel. The modern spring green, when plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, corresponds to a visual stimulus of about 505 nanometers on the visible spectrum. In HSV color space, the expression of which is known as the RGB color wheel, spring green has a hue of 150°. Spring green is one of the tertiary colors on the RGB color wheel, where it is the complementary color of rose. The first recorded use of spring green as a color name in English was in 1766, referring to roughly the color we now call spring bud.... Spring green (computer) Spring green (HTML) Spring green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00FF7F sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 255, 127) HSV (h, s, v)    (150°, 100%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (88, 110, 137°) Source    X11 ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid bluish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Spring green is a web color, common to X11 and HTML. Medium spring green Medium spring green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00FA9A sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 250, 154) HSV (h, s, v)    (157°, 100%, 98%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (87, 95, 143°) Source    X11[2] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Displayed at right is the color medium spring green. Medium spring green is a web color. It is close to but not right on the color wheel and it is a little closer to cyan than to green. Dark spring green Dark spring green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #177245 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (23, 114, 69) HSV (h, s, v)    (150°, 80%, 45%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (42, 43, 142°) Source    X11 ISCC–NBS descriptor    Deep yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At right is displayed the web color dark spring green. Additional variations of web spring green Mint cream Mint cream   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #F5FFFA sRGBB (r, g, b)    (245, 255, 250) HSV (h, s, v)    (150°, 4%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (99, 6, 153°) Source    X11 ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very pale green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Displayed at right is the web color mint cream, a pale pastel tint of spring green. The color mint cream is a representation of the color of the interior of an after dinner mint (which is disc shaped with mint flavored buttercream on the inside and a chocolate coating on the outside). Sea green Sea green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #2E8B57 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (46, 139, 87) HSV (h, s, v)    (146°, 67%, 55%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (52, 50, 141°) Source    HTML/CSS ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Flag of a proposed "British Republic" used by Chartists and Radicals in the nineteenth century. Sea green colors were often used by the Chartists and earlier Levellers. A group of 'English republican' intellectuals used a version of this tricolor with blue at the top. Green sea at Manuel Antonio Beach, Costa Rica Green sea at Manuel Antonio Beach, Costa Rica Sea green is a shade of cyan color that resembles the hue of shallow seawater as seen from the surface. Sea green is notable for being the emblematic color of the Levellers party in the politics of 1640s England. Leveller supporters would wear a sea-green ribbon, in a similar manner to the present-day red AIDS awareness ribbon. Medium sea green Medium sea green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #3CB371 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (60, 179, 113) HSV (h, s, v)    (147°, 66%, 70%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (65, 64, 141°) Source    X11 ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At right is displayed the web color medium sea green, a medium shade of spring green. Aquamarine Main article: Aquamarine (color) Aquamarine   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #7FFFD4 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (127, 255, 212) HSV (h, s, v)    (160°, 50%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (92, 60, 158°) Source    X11 ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Aquamarine crystals on muscovite Aquamarine crystals on muscovite Aquamarine is a color that is a pale bright tint of spring green toned toward cyan. It represents the color of the aquamarine gemstone. Aquamarine is the birthstone for those born on January 21 to February 20 in tropical zodiac, and February 14 to March 15 in sidereal zodiac. Spring green (traditional) Spring bud Main article: Spring bud Spring Bud   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #A7FC00 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (167, 252, 0) HSV (h, s, v)    (80°, 100%, 99%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (91, 114, 112°) Source    Maerz and Paul[3] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellow green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Spring bud is the color that used to be called spring green before the X11 web color spring green was formulated in 1987 when the X11 colors were first promulgated. This color is now called spring bud to avoid confusion with the web color.[citation needed] The color is also called soft spring green, spring green (traditional), or spring green (M&P). The first recorded use of spring green as a color name in English (meaning the color that is now called spring bud) was in 1766.[4] Additional variations of traditional spring green Emerald Emerald   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #50C878 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (80, 200, 120) HSV (h, s, v)    (140°, 60%, 78%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (72, 71, 137°) Source    Maerz and Paul[5] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The emerald in the image is the Gachalá Emerald. Emerald crystals Emerald as a quinary color on the RYB color wheel   green   emerald   viridian Emerald, also called emerald green, is a tone of green that is particularly light and bright, with a faint bluish cast. The name derives from the typical appearance of the emerald gemstone.[6] The first recorded use of emerald as a color name in English was in 1598.[7] Ireland is sometimes referred to as the Emerald Isle due to its lush greenery. The May birthstone is emerald. Seattle is sometimes referred to as the Emerald City, because its abundant rainfall creates lush vegetation. In the Middle Ages, The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus was believed to contain the secrets of alchemy. "Emerald City", from the story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, by L. Frank Baum, is a city where everything from food to people are emerald green. However, it is revealed at the end of the story that everything in the city is normal colored, but the glasses everyone wears are emerald tinted. The Green Zone in Baghdad is sometimes ironically and cynically referred to as the Emerald City.[8] The Emerald Buddha is a figurine of the sitting Buddha, made of green jade (rather than emerald), clothed in gold, and about 45 cm tall. It is kept in the Chapel of the Emerald Buddha (Wat Phra Kaew) on the grounds of the Grand Palace in Bangkok. The Emerald Triangle refers to the three counties of Mendocino, Humboldt, and Trinity in Northern California, United States[9] because these three counties are the biggest marijuana producing counties in California and also the US.[9] A county-commissioned study reports pot accounts for up to two-thirds of the economy of Mendocino.[9] Emerald Cities: Urban Sustainability and Economic Development is a book published in 2010 by Joan Fitzgerald, director of the law, policy and society program at Northeastern University, about ecologically sustainable city planning. Emerald was invented in Germany in 1814. By taking acetic acid, mixing and boiling it with vinegar, and then by adding some arsenic, a bright blue-green hue was formed.[10] During the 19th century, the arsenic-containing dye Paris green was marketed as emerald green.[11] It was notorious for causing deaths due to it being a popular color used for wallpaper. Victorian women used this bright color for dresses, and florists used it on fake flowers.[12] Viridian Main article: Viridian Viridian   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #40826D sRGBB (r, g, b)    (64, 130, 109) HSV (h, s, v)    (161°, 51%, 51%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (50, 31, 160°) Source    Maerz and Paul[13] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Moderate green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Viridian as a quaternary color on the RYB color wheel   green   viridian   teal At right is displayed the color viridian, a medium tone of spring green. The first recorded use of viridian as a color name in English was in the 1860s (exact year uncertain).[14] Other variations of spring green Green (CMYK) (pigment green) Green (CMYK) (pigment green)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00A550 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 165, 80) HSV (h, s, v)    (149°, 100%, 65%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (59, 74, 137°) Source    CMYK[15] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The color defined as green in the CMYK color system used in printing, also known as pigment green, is the tone of green that is achieved by mixing process (printer's) cyan and process (printer's) yellow in equal proportions. It is displayed at right. Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the three subtractive primary colors used in printing. The purpose of the CMYK color system is to provide the maximum possible gamut of color reproducible in printing. The color indicated is only approximate as the colors of printing inks may vary. Green (NCS) (psychological primary green) Green (NCS)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #009F6B sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 159, 107) HSV (h, s, v)    (160°, 100%, 62%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (58, 58, 148°) Source    sRGB approximation to NCS 2060-G[16] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The color defined as green in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right (NCS 2060-G). The natural color system is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision. Approximations within the sRGB gamut to the primary colors of the Natural Color System, a model based on the opponent process theory of color vision. The Natural Color System is widely used in Scandinavia. Green (Munsell) Green (Munsell)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00A877 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 168, 119) HSV (h, s, v)    (162°, 100%, 66%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (61, 59, 152°) Source    Munsell Color Wheel[17] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The color defined as green in the Munsell color system (Munsell 5G) is shown at right. The Munsell color system is a color space that specifies colors based on three color dimensions: hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity), spaced uniformly in three dimensions in the elongated oval at an angle shaped Munsell color solid according to the logarithmic scale which governs human perception. In order for all the colors to be spaced uniformly, it was found necessary to use a color wheel with five primary colors—red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. The hues of the Munsell color system, at varying values, and maximum chroma to stay in the sRGB gamut. The Munsell colors displayed are only approximate as they have been adjusted to fit into the sRGB gamut. Green (Pantone) Green (Pantone)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00AD83 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 173, 131) HSV (h, s, v)    (165°, 100%, 68%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (63, 58, 157°) Source    Pantone TPX[18] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Green (Pantone) is the color that is called green in Pantone. The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color # green C, EC, HC, PC, U, or UP—green.[18] Green (Crayola) Green (Crayola)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #1CAC78 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (28, 172, 120) HSV (h, s, v)    (158°, 84%, 67%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (63, 60, 149°) Source    Crayola[citation needed] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Green (Crayola) is the color called green in Crayola crayons. Green was one of the original Crayola crayons introduced in 1903. Erin Main article: Erin (color) Erin   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00FF40 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 255, 64) HSV (h, s, v)    (135°, 100%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (88, 129, 130°) Source    Maerz and Paul[19] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At the right is displayed the color erin. The first recorded use of erin as a color name was in 1922. Bright mint Bright mint   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #4FFFB0 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (79, 255, 176) HSV (h, s, v)    (153°, 69%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (90, 84, 146°) Source    [Unsourced] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Displayed at right is the color bright mint. Dark green Dark green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #013220 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (1, 50, 32) HSV (h, s, v)    (158°, 98%, 20%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (17, 17, 150°) Source    Encycolorpedia[20] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Dark green is a dark shade of green. A different shade of green has been designated as "dark green (X11)" for certain computer uses. Dark pastel green Dark pastel green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #03C03C sRGBB (r, g, b)    (3, 192, 60) HSV (h, s, v)    (138°, 98%, 75%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (68, 96, 131°) Source    Encycolorpedia[21] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) To the right is the color dark pastel green. Screamin' green Screamin' green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #76FF7A sRGBB (r, g, b)    (118, 255, 122) HSV (h, s, v)    (122°, 54%, 100%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (90, 100, 128°) Source    Crayola[citation needed] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The color screamin' green is shown at right. This color was renamed from ultra green by Crayola in 1990. This color is a fluorescent color. Cambridge blue Main article: Cambridge Blue (colour) Cambridge blue   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #A3C1AD sRGBB (r, g, b)    (163, 193, 173) HSV (h, s, v)    (140°, 16%, 76%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (75, 20, 142°) Source    [2] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Light yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Cambridge blue is the color commonly used by sports teams from Cambridge University.[22] This color is actually a medium tone of spring green. Spring green colors are colors with an h code (hue code) of between 135 and 165; this color has an h code of 140, putting it within the range of spring green colors on the RGB color wheel. Caribbean green Caribbean green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00CC99 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 204, 153) HSV (h, s, v)    (165°, 100%, 80%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (73, 68, 155°) Source    Crayola ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At right is displayed the color Caribbean green. This is a Crayola color formulated in 1997. Magic mint Magic mint   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #AAF0D1 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (170, 240, 209) HSV (h, s, v)    (153°, 29%, 94%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (90, 38, 154°) Source    Crayola ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very light green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At right is displayed the color magic mint, a light tint of spring green. The color magic mint is a light tint of the color mint. Ceramic tiles in a similar color, often with a contrasting black border, were a popular choice for bathroom,[23] kitchen and upmarket hotel swimming pool décor during the 1930s.[citation needed] This is a Crayola color formulated in 1990 (later retired in 2003). Mint Mint   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #3EB489 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (62, 180, 137) HSV (h, s, v)    (158°, 66%, 71%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (66, 54, 153°) Source    ISCC-NBS ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) The color mint, also known as mint leaf, is a representation of the color of mint. Mint leaves Mint leaves The first recorded use of mint as a color name in English was in 1920.[24] Mountain meadow Mountain meadow   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #30BA8F sRGBB (r, g, b)    (48, 186, 143) HSV (h, s, v)    (161°, 74%, 73%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (68, 57, 156°) Source    Crayola ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Displayed at right is the color mountain meadow. Mountain meadow is a Crayola crayon color formulated in 1998. Persian green Main article: Persian green Persian green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00A693 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 166, 147) HSV (h, s, v)    (173°, 100%, 65%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (61, 50, 174°) Source    ISCC-NBS ISCC–NBS descriptor    Brilliant bluish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Persian green is a color used in pottery and Persian carpets in Iran. Malachite is Persian green in color. Malachite is Persian green in color. Other colors associated with Persia include Persian red and Persian blue. The color Persian green is named from the green color of some Persian pottery and is a representation of the color of the mineral malachite. It is a popular color in Iran because the color green symbolizes gardens, nature, heaven, and sanctity. The first recorded use of Persian green as a color name in English was in 1892.[25][26] Sea foam green Sea foam green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #9FE2BF sRGBB (r, g, b)    (159, 226, 191) HSV (h, s, v)    (149°, 30%, 89%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (85, 39, 148°) Source    Crayola ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very light green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) This is the Crayola version of the above color, a much brighter and lighter shade. It was introduced in 2001. Shamrock green (Irish green) Shamrock green   Common connotations St. Patrick's Day About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #009E60 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 158, 96) HSV (h, s, v)    (156°, 100%, 62%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (57, 62, 143°) Source    Maerz and Paul[27] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Shamrock green is a tone of green that represents the color of shamrocks, a symbol of Ireland.[28] Shamrocks The first recorded use of shamrock as a color name in English was in the 1820s (exact year uncertain).[29] This green is also defined as Irish green Pantone 347.[30] This green is used as the green on the national flag of Ireland.[31] It is customary in Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States to wear this or any other tone of green on St. Patrick's Day, 17 March. The State of California uses this shade of green of the grass under the bear on their state flag.[32] The Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association use this shade for their uniforms, logos, and other memorabilia. Sap green Sap green   About these coordinates     Colour coordinates Hex triplet    #123524 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (18, 53, 36) HSV (h, s, v)    (151°, 66%, 21%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (19, 15, 146°) Source    The Mother of All HTML Colo(u)r Charts ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Sap green is a green pigment that was traditionally made of ripe buckthorn berries.[33] However, modern colors marketed under this name are usually a blend of other pigments, commonly with a basis of Phthalocyanine Green G.[34] Sap green paint was frequently used on Bob Ross's TV show, The Joy of Painting.[35] Jade Jade   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00A86B sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 168, 107) HSV (h, s, v)    (158°, 100%, 66%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (61, 64, 145°) Source    [Unsourced] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Jade, also called jade green, is a representation of the color of the gemstone called jade, although the stone itself varies widely in hue. A slab of jade The color name jade green was first used in Spanish in the form piedra de ijada in 1569.[36] The first recorded use of jade green as a color name in English was in 1892.[37] Malachite Malachite   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #0BDA51 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (11, 218, 81) HSV (h, s, v)    (140°, 95%, 85%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (77, 104, 132°) Source    Maerz and Paul[38] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Malachite, also called malachite green, is a color that is a representation of the color of the mineral malachite. Polished malachite The first recorded use of malachite green as a color name in English was in the 1200s (exact year uncertain).[39] Opal Opal   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #A8C3BC sRGBB (r, g, b)    (168, 195, 188) HSV (h, s, v)    (164°, 14%, 76%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (77, 14, 170°) Source    [3] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Light green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Rough opal in matrix Rough opal in matrix Cut and polished opals Cut and polished opals Displayed at right is the color opal. It is a pale shade of cyan that is reminiscent of the color of an opal gemstone, although as with many gemstones, opals come in a wide variety of colors. Brunswick green Brunswick green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #1B4D3E sRGBB (r, g, b)    (27, 77, 62) HSV (h, s, v)    (162°, 65%, 30%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (29, 21, 160°) Source    [Unsourced] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Dark green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Brunswick green is a common name for green pigments made from copper compounds, although the name has also been used for other formulations that produce a similar hue, such as mixtures of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. The pigment is named after Braunschweig, Germany (also known as Brunswick in English) where it was first manufactured. It is a deep, dark green, which may vary from intense to very dark, almost black.[40] The first recorded use of Brunswick green as a color name in English was in 1764.[41] Another name for this color is English green. The first use of English green as a synonym for Brunswick green was in 1923.[42] Deep Brunswick green is commonly recognized as part of the British racing green spectrum, the national auto racing color of the United Kingdom. A different color, also called Brunswick green, was the color for passenger locomotives of the grouping and then the nationalized British Railways. There were three shades of these colors and they are defined under British Standard BS381C – 225, BS381C – 226, and BS381C – 227 (ordered from lightest to darkest). The Brunswick green used by the Nationalised British Railways – Western Region for passenger locomotives was BS381C – 227 (rgb(30:62:46)). RAL6005 is a close substitute to BS381C – 227. A characteristic of these colors was the ease for various railway locations to mix them by using whole pots of primary colors – hence the ability to get reasonably consistent colors with manual mixing half a century and more ago. The color used by the Pennsylvania Railroad for locomotives was often called Brunswick green, but officially was termed dark green locomotive enamel (DGLE). This was a shade of green so dark as to be almost black, but which turned greener with age and weathering as the copper compounds further oxidized.[43] Castleton green Castleton green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00563B sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 86, 59) HSV (h, s, v)    (161°, 100%, 34%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (32, 31, 151°) Source    Castleton Colors[44] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Castleton green is one of the two official colors of Castleton University in Vermont. The official college colors are green (PMS 343) and white. The Castleton University Office of Marketing and Communications created the Castleton colors for web and logo development and has technical guidelines, copyright and privacy protection; as well as logos and images that developers are asked to follow in the college's guidelines for using official Castleton logos. If web developers are using green on a university website, they are encouraged to use Castleton green. It is prominently used for representing Castleton's athletic teams, the Castleton Spartans. Bottle green "Bottle green" redirects here. For the RAL color, see RAL 6007 Bottle green. Bottle green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #006A4E sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 106, 78) HSV (h, s, v)    (164°, 100%, 42%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (39, 36, 155°) Source    Encycolorpedia[45] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Dark green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Bottle green is a dark shade of green, similar to pine green. It is a representation of the color of green glass bottles. Green bottles on a windowsill The first recorded use of bottle green as a color name in English was in 1816.[46] Bottle green is a color in Prismacolor marker and pencil sets. It is also the color of the uniform of the Police Service of Northern Ireland replacing the Royal Ulster Constabulary's "rifle green" colored uniforms in 2001. It is also the green used in uniforms for South Sydney High School in Sydney.[47] Bottle green is also the color most associated with guide signs and street name signs in the United States. Bottle green is also the background color of the Flag of Bangladesh, as defined by the government of Bangladesh.[48] Another name for this color is Bangladesh green.[49] Dartmouth green Dartmouth green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00693E sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 105, 62) HSV (h, s, v)    (155°, 100%, 41%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (39, 42, 143°) Source    Dartmouth Brand Guide[50] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Deep yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Dartmouth green is the official color of Dartmouth College, adopted in 1866. It was chosen for being the only decent primary color that had not been taken already.[51][52] It is prominently used as the name of the Dartmouth College athletic team, the Dartmouth Big Green. The Dartmouth athletic teams adopted this new name after the college officially discontinued the use of its unofficial mascot, the Dartmouth Indian, in 1974. Dartmouth green and white are the main colors of Lithuanian basketball club Žalgiris Kaunas. GO Transit green GO green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00AB66 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 171, 102) HSV (h, s, v)    (156°, 100%, 67%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (62, 68, 143°) Source    Legislative Assembly of Ontario[53] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) GO green was the color used for the brand of GO Transit, the regional commuter service in the Greater Toronto Area. A GO Transit train on the Lakeshore West line in Toronto, Canada Between 1967 and 2013, the brand and color that has adorned each of its trains, buses, and other property generally remained unchanged.[54] It also matched the shade of green used on signs for highways in Ontario. In July 2013, GO Transit updated its look to a two-tone color scheme.[55] Gotham green Gotham green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00573F sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 87, 63) HSV (h, s, v)    (163°, 100%, 34%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (32, 30, 155°) Source    [56] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Gotham green is the official color of the New York Jets as of 4 April 2019. The name is a reference to one of the Nicknames of New York City. Pakistan green Pakistan green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #01411C sRGBB (r, g, b)    (1, 65, 28) HSV (h, s, v)    (145°, 98%, 25%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (23, 28, 137°) Source    [Unsourced] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Deep yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Pakistan green is a shade of dark green, used in web development and graphic design. It is also the background color of the national flag of Pakistan. It is almost identical to the HTML/X11 dark green in sRGB and HSV values. Sacramento State green Sacramento State green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #043927 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (4, 57, 39) HSV (h, s, v)    (160°, 93%, 22%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (20, 19, 152°) Source    Sacramento State[57] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) In 2004, California State University, Sacramento rebranded itself as Sacramento State, while keeping the official name as the long form. In the process of rebranding a new logo was selected, and in 2005 it formalized the colors which it would use.[57] Paris green Main article: Paris green Paris green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #50C878 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (80, 200, 120) HSV (h, s, v)    (140°, 60%, 78%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (72, 71, 137°) Source    [Unsourced] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Vivid yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Paris green is a color that ranges from pale and vivid blue green to deeper true green. It comes from the inorganic compound copper (II) acetoarsenite and was once a popular pigment in artists' paints. Spanish green Spanish green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #009150 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 145, 80) HSV (h, s, v)    (153°, 100%, 57%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (53, 61, 140°) Source    Gallego and Sanz[58] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Strong yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Spanish green is the color that is called "verde" (the Spanish word for "green") in the Guía de coloraciones (Guide to colorations) by Rosa Gallego and Juan Carlos Sanz, a color dictionary published in 2005 that is widely popular in the Hispanophone realm. UNT green UNT green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #00853E sRGBB (r, g, b)    (0, 133, 62) HSV (h, s, v)    (148°, 100%, 52%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (48, 60, 136°) Source    University of North Texas Identity Guide[59] B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) UNT green is one of three official colors used by the University of North Texas. It is the primary color that appears on branding and promotional material produced by and on behalf of the university.[59] UP forest green UP forest green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #014421 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (1, 68, 33) HSV (h, s, v)    (149°, 99%, 27%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (24, 29, 139°) Source    University of the Philippines[60] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very dark yellowish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) At the right is one of the official colors used by the University of the Philippines, designated as "UP forest green". It is based on the approved color specifications to be used for the seal of the university.[60] Hooker's green Hooker's green   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #49796B sRGBB (r, g, b)    (73, 121, 107) HSV (h, s, v)    (162°, 40%, 47%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (47, 23, 164°) Source    Winsor & Newton[61] ISCC–NBS descriptor    Moderate green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Hooker's green is a dark green color created by mixing Prussian blue and gamboge. It is displayed on the right. Hooker's green takes its name from botanical artist William Hooker (1779–1832) who first created it particularly for illustrating leaves.[62] Aero blue See also: Air Force blue § Aero Aero blue   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #C0E8D5 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (192, 232, 213) HSV (h, s, v)    (152°, 17%, 91%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (89, 23, 153°) Source    Resene ISCC–NBS descriptor    Very light green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Aero blue is a fluorescent greenish-cyan color. Aero blue was used as rainshower in one of the Sharpie permanent markers but not as bright on the marker. However, there is no mechanism for showing fluorescence on a computer screen. Morning sky Morning sky   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #8DA399 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (141, 163, 153) HSV (h, s, v)    (153°, 13%, 64%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (65, 13, 155°) Source    ISCC-NBS ISCC–NBS descriptor    Pale green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Morning sky, also known as Morning blue is a representation of the color of the morning sky. The year of the first recorded use of morning blue as a color name in English is unknown. Early morning sky Early morning sky Feldgrau green Main article: Feldgrau Feldgrau (1937–1945)   About these coordinates     Color coordinates Hex triplet    #4D5D53 sRGBB (r, g, b)    (77, 93, 83) HSV (h, s, v)    (142°, 17%, 36%) CIELChuv (L, C, h)    (38, 10, 144°) Source    Mindjunker ISCC–NBS descriptor    Dark grayish green B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte) Feldgrau (field grey) was the color of the field uniform of the German Army from 1937 to 1945, and the East German NVA armies. Metaphorically, feldgrau used to refer to the armies of Germany (the Imperial German Army and the Heer [army] component of the Reichswehr and the Wehrmacht). " (wikipedia.org) "Mid-century modern (MCM) is an American design movement in interior, product, graphic design, architecture, and urban development that was popular from roughly 1945 to 1969,[1][2] during the United States's post–World War II period. The term was used descriptively as early as the mid-1950s and was defined as a design movement by Cara Greenberg in her 1984 book Mid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s. It is now recognized by scholars and museums worldwide as a significant design movement. The MCM design aesthetic is modern in style and construction, aligned with the Modernist movement of the period. It is typically characterized by clean, simple lines and honest use of materials, and it generally does not include decorative embellishments.... Architecture     This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mid-century modern architectureCalifornia Mid-Century Modern Home with open-beam ceiling 1960.jpg Tract home in Tujunga, California, featuring open-beamed ceilings, c. 1960 Years active    1945–1969 Country    United States Influences    International, Bauhaus Detail of Copan, a Niemeyer building in São Paulo, Oscar Niemeyer The Mid-century modern movement in the U.S. was an American reflection of the International and Bauhaus movements, including the works of Gropius, Florence Knoll, Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[3] Although the American component was slightly more organic in form and less formal than the International Style, it is more firmly related to it than any other. Brazilian and Scandinavian architects were very influential at this time, with a style characterized by clean simplicity and integration with nature. Like many of Wright's designs, Mid-century architecture was frequently employed in residential structures with the goal of bringing modernism into America's post-war suburbs. This style emphasized creating structures with ample windows and open floor plans, with the intention of opening up interior spaces and bringing the outdoors in. Many Mid-century houses utilized then-groundbreaking post and beam architectural design that eliminated bulky support walls in favor of walls seemingly made of glass. Function was as important as form in Mid-century designs, with an emphasis placed on targeting the needs of the average American family. Eichler Homes – Foster Residence, Granada Hills In Europe, the influence of Le Corbusier and the CIAM resulted in an architectural orthodoxy manifest across most parts of post-war Europe that was ultimately challenged by the radical agendas of the architectural wings of the avant-garde Situationist International, COBRA, as well as Archigram in London. A critical but sympathetic reappraisal of the internationalist oeuvre, inspired by Scandinavian Moderns such as Alvar Aalto, Sigurd Lewerentz and Arne Jacobsen, and the late work of Le Corbusier himself, was reinterpreted by groups such as Team X, including structuralist architects such as Aldo van Eyck, Ralph Erskine, Denys Lasdun, Jørn Utzon and the movement known in the United Kingdom as New Brutalism. Pioneering builder and real estate developer Joseph Eichler was instrumental in bringing Mid-century modern architecture ("Eichler Homes") to subdivisions in the Los Angeles area and the San Francisco Bay region of California, and select housing developments on the east coast. George Fred Keck, his brother Willam Keck, Henry P. Glass, Mies van der Rohe, and Edward Humrich created Mid-century modern residences in the Chicago area. Mies van der Rohe's Farnsworth House is extremely difficult to heat or cool, while Keck and Keck were pioneers in the incorporation of passive solar features in their houses to compensate for their large glass windows. Mid-century modern in Palm Springs Miller House, by Richard Neutra The city of Palm Springs, California is noted for its many examples of Mid-century modern architecture.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][excessive citations] Architects include:[11][12]     Welton Becket: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Wurdeman) (1947) (demolished, 1996[13])     John Porter Clark: Welwood Murray Library (1937); Clark Residence (1939) (on the El Minador golf course); Palm Springs Women's Club (1939)     William F. Cody: Stanley Goldberg residence;[14] Del Marcos Motel (1947); L'Horizon Hotel, for Jack Wrather and Bonita Granville (1952); remodel of Thunderbird Country Club clubhouse (c. 1953) (Rancho Mirage); Tamarisk Country Club (1953) (Rancho Mirage) (now remodeled); Huddle Springs restaurant (1957); St. Theresa Parish Church (1968); Palm Springs Library (1975)     Craig Ellwood: Max Palevsky House (1970)     Albert Frey: Palm Springs City Hall (with Clark and Chambers) (1952–57); Palm Springs Fire Station #1 (1955); Tramway Gas Station (1963); Movie Colony Hotel; Kocher-Samson Building (1934) (with A. Lawrence Kocher); Raymond Loewy House (1946); Villa Hermosa Resort (1946); Frey House I (1953); Frey House II (1963); Carey-Pirozzi house (1956); Christian Scientist Church (1957); Alpha Beta Shopping Center (1960) (demolished)     Victor Gruen: City National Bank (now Bank of America) (1959)[15] (designed as an homage to the Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, by Le Corbusier)     A. Quincy Jones: Palm Springs Tennis Club (with Paul R. Williams) (1946); Town & Country Center (with Paul R. Williams) (1947–50); J.J. Robinson House (with Frederick E. Emmons) (1957); Ambassador and Mrs. Walter H. Annenberg House (with Frederick E. Emmons) (1963)     William Krisel:[16] Ocotillo Lodge(1957); House of Tomorrow(1962).[17]     John Lautner: Desert Hot Springs Motel (1947); Arthur Elrod House (1968) (interiors used in filming James Bond's Diamonds Are Forever); Hope Residence (1973)     John Black Lee: Specialized in residential houses. Lee House 1 (1952), Lee House 2 (1956) for which he won the Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects, Day House (1965), * System House (1961), Rogers House (1957), Ravello (1960)     Gene Leedy: The Sarasota School of Architecture, sometimes called Sarasota Modern, is a regional style of post-war architecture that emerged on Florida's Central West Coast.     Frederick Monhoff: Palm Springs Biltmore Resort (1948) (demolished, 2003[13])     Richard Neutra (Posthumous AIA Gold Medal honoree): Grace Lewis Miller house (1937) (includes her Mensendlieck posture therapy studio);[18] Kaufmann Desert House (1946);[19] Samuel and Luella Maslon House, Tamarisk Country Club, Rancho Mirage (1962) (demolished 2003)[13]     William Pereira: Robinson's (1953)     William Gray Purcell (with protégé Van Evera Bailey): Purcell House (1933) (cubist modern)     Donald Wexler: Steel Developmental Houses,[20] Sunny View Drive (1961). Home developer, Alexander Homes, popularized this post-and-beam architectural style in the Coachella Valley. Alexander houses and similar homes feature low-pitched roofs, wide eaves, open-beamed ceilings, and floor-to-ceiling windows.[7]: 66–75      E. Stewart Williams: Frank Sinatra House (1946) (with piano-shaped pool); Oasis commercial building (with interiors by Paul R. Williams) (1952); William and Marjorie Edris House (1954); Mari and Steward Williams House (1956); Santa Fe Federal Savings Building (1958); Coachella Valley Savings & Loan (now Washington Mutual) (1960); Palm Springs Desert Museum (1976)     Paul Williams: Palm Springs Tennis Club (with Jones) (1946)     Frank Lloyd Wright Jr.: Oasis Hotel (1923)     Walter Wurdeman: Bullock's Palm Springs (with Welton Becket) (1947) (demolished 1996)[13] Examples of 1950s Palm Springs motel architecture include Ballantines Movie Colony (1952) – one portion is the 1935 Albert Frey San Jacinto Hotel – the Coral Sands Inn (1952), and the Orbit Inn (1957).[21] Restoration projects have been undertaken to return many of these residences and businesses to their original condition.[22] Industrial design Scandinavian design was very influential at this time, with a style characterized by simplicity, democratic design and natural shapes. Glassware (Iittala – Finland), ceramics (Arabia – Finland), tableware (Georg Jensen – Denmark), lighting (Poul Henningsen – Denmark), and furniture (Danish modern) were some of the genres for the products created. In America, east of the Mississippi, the American-born Russel Wright, designing for Steubenville Pottery, and Hungarian-born Eva Zeisel designing for Red Wing Pottery and later Hall China created free-flowing ceramic designs that were much admired and heralded in the trend of smooth, flowing contours in dinnerware. On the West Coast of America the industrial designer and potter Edith Heath (1911–2005) founded Heath Ceramics in 1948. The company was one of the numerous California pottery manufacturers that had their heyday in post-war US, and produced Mid-Century modern ceramic dish-ware. Edith Heath's "Coupe" line remains in demand and has been in constant production since 1948, with only periodic changes to the texture and color of the glazes.[23] The Tamac Pottery company produced a line of mid-century modern biomorphic dinnerware and housewares between 1946 to 1972.[24] Social medium Printed ephemera documenting the mid-century transformations in design, architecture, landscape, infrastructure, and entertainment include mid-century linen post cards from the early 1930s to the late 1950s. Mid-century linen post cards came about through innovations pioneered through the use of offset lithography. The cards were produced on paper with a high rag content, which gave the post card a textured look and feel. At the time this was a less expensive process. Along with advances in printing technique, mid-century linen postcards allowed for very vibrant ink colors. The encyclopedic geographic imagery of mid-century linen post cards suggests popular middle class attitudes about nature, wilderness, technology, mobility and the city during the mid-20th century.[25] Curt Teich in Chicago[26] was the most prominent and largest printer and publisher of Linen Type postcards[27] pioneering lithography with his "Art Colortone" process.[28] Other large publishers include Stanley Piltz in San Francisco, who established the "Pictorial Wonderland Art Tone Series", Western Publishing and Novelty Company in Los Angeles and the Tichnor Brothers in Boston.[29] The printing of mid-century linen post cards began to give way in the late 1950s to Kodachrome and Ektachrome color prints. " (wikipedia.org) "AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM) transmissions. It was the first method developed for making audio radio transmissions, and is still used worldwide, primarily for medium wave (also known as "AM band") transmissions, but also on the longwave and shortwave radio bands. The earliest experimental AM transmissions began in the early 1900s. However, widespread AM broadcasting was not established until the 1920s, following the development of vacuum tube receivers and transmitters. AM radio remained the dominant method of broadcasting for the next 30 years, a period called the "Golden Age of Radio", until television broadcasting became widespread in the 1950s and received most of the programming previously carried by radio. Subsequently, AM radio's audiences have also greatly shrunk due to competition from FM (frequency modulation) radio, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio, HD (digital) radio, Internet radio, music streaming services, and podcasting. AM transmissions are much more susceptible to interference than FM or digital signals, and often have lower audio fidelity. Thus, AM broadcasters tend to specialise in spoken-word formats, such as talk radio, all news and sports, with music formats primarily for FM and digital stations. ... History For broader coverage of this topic, see History of radio and History of broadcasting. See also: FM broadcasting § History     People who weren't around in the Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for the first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio.     — Red Barber, sportscaster, [1] Early broadcasting development One of the earliest radio broadcasts, French soprano Mariette Mazarin singing into Lee de Forest's arc transmitter in New York City on February 24, 1910 Lee de Forest used an early vacuum-tube transmitter to broadcast returns for the Hughes-Wilson presidential election returns on November 7, 1916, over 2XG in New York City. Pictured is engineer Charles Logwood. The idea of broadcasting — the unrestricted transmission of signals to a widespread audience — dates back to the founding period of radio development, even though the earliest radio transmissions, originally known as "Hertzian radiation" and "wireless telegraphy", used spark-gap transmitters that could only transmit the dots-and-dashes of Morse code. In October 1898 a London publication, The Electrician, noted that "there are rare cases where, as Dr. [Oliver] Lodge once expressed it, it might be advantageous to 'shout' the message, spreading it broadcast to receivers in all directions".[2] However, it was recognized that this would involve significant financial issues, as that same year The Electrician also commented "did not Prof. Lodge forget that no one wants to pay for shouting to the world on a system by which it would be impossible to prevent non-subscribers from benefiting gratuitously?"[3] On January 1, 1902, Nathan Stubblefield gave a short-range "wireless telephone" demonstration, that included simultaneously broadcasting speech and music to seven locations throughout Murray, Kentucky. However, this was transmitted using induction rather than radio signals, and although Stubblefield predicted that his system would be perfected so that "it will be possible to communicate with hundreds of homes at the same time", and "a single message can be sent from a central station to all parts of the United States", he was unable to overcome the inherent distance limitations of this technology.[4] The earliest public radiotelegraph broadcasts were provided as government services, beginning with daily time signals inaugurated on January 1, 1905, by a number of U.S. Navy stations.[5] In Europe, signals transmitted from a station located on the Eiffel tower were received throughout much of Europe. In both the United States and France this led to a small market of receiver lines geared for jewelers who needed accurate time to set their clocks, including the Ondophone in France,[6] and the De Forest RS-100 Jewelers Time Receiver in the United States[7] The ability to pick up time signal broadcasts, in addition to Morse code weather reports and news summaries, also attracted the interest of amateur radio enthusiasts. Early amplitude modulation (AM) transmitter technologies It was immediately recognized that, much like the telegraph had preceded the invention of the telephone, the ability to make audio radio transmissions would be a significant technical advance. Despite this knowledge, it still took two decades to perfect the technology needed to make quality audio transmissions. In addition, the telephone had rarely been used for distributing entertainment, outside of a few "telephone newspaper" systems, most of which were established in Europe. With this in mind, most early radiotelephone development envisioned that the device would be more profitably developed as a "wireless telephone" for personal communication, or for providing links where regular telephone lines could not be run, rather than for the uncertain finances of broadcasting. Nellie Melba making a broadcast over the Marconi Chelmsford Works radio station in England on 15 June 1920 Farmer listening to U.S. government weather and crop reports using a crystal radio in 1923. Public service government time, weather, and farm broadcasts were the first radio "broadcasts". A family listening to an early broadcast using a crystal radio receiver in 1922. Crystal sets, used before the advent of vacuum tube radios in the 1920s, could not drive loudspeakers, so the family had to listen on earphones. The person generally credited as the primary early developer of AM technology is Canadian-born inventor Reginald Fessenden. The original spark-gap radio transmitters were impractical for transmitting audio, since they produced discontinuous pulses known as "damped waves". Fessenden realized that what was needed was a new type of radio transmitter that produced steady "undamped" (better known as "continuous wave") signals, which could then be "modulated" to reflect the sounds being transmitted. Fessenden's basic approach was disclosed in U.S. Patent 706,737, which he applied for on May 29, 1901, and was issued the next year. It called for the use of a high-speed alternator (referred to as "an alternating-current dynamo") that generated "pure sine waves" and produced "a continuous train of radiant waves of substantially uniform strength", or, in modern terminology, a continuous-wave (CW) transmitter.[8] Fessenden began his research on audio transmissions while doing developmental work for the United States Weather Service on Cobb Island, Maryland. Because he did not yet have a continuous-wave transmitter, initially he worked with an experimental "high-frequency spark" transmitter, taking advantage of the fact that the higher the spark rate, the closer a spark-gap transmission comes to producing continuous waves. He later reported that, in the fall of 1900, he successfully transmitted speech over a distance of about 1.6 kilometers (one mile),[9] which appears to have been the first successful audio transmission using radio signals. However, at this time the sound was far too distorted to be commercially practical.[10] For a time he continued working with more sophisticated high-frequency spark transmitters, including versions that used compressed air, which began to take on some of the characteristics of arc-transmitters.[11] Fessenden attempted to sell this form of radiotelephone for point-to-point communication, but was unsuccessful.[12] Alternator transmitter Fessenden's work with high-frequency spark transmissions was only a temporary measure. His ultimate plan for creating an audio-capable transmitter was to redesign an electrical alternator, which normally produced alternating current of at most a few hundred (Hz), to increase its rotational speed and so generate currents of tens-of-thousands Hz, thus producing a steady continuous-wave transmission when connected to an aerial. The next step, adopted from standard wire-telephone practice, was to insert a simple carbon microphone into the transmission line, to modulate the carrier wave signal to produce AM audio transmissions. However, it would take many years of expensive development before even a prototype alternator-transmitter would be ready, and a few years beyond that for high-power versions to become available.[13] Fessenden worked with General Electric's (GE) Ernst F. W. Alexanderson, who in August 1906 delivered an improved model which operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although at low power. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but the lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On December 21, 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. As part of the demonstration, speech was transmitted 18 kilometers (11 miles) to a listening site at Plymouth, Massachusetts.[14] An American Telephone Journal account of the December 21 alternator-transmitter demonstration included the statement that "It is admirably adapted to the transmission of news, music, etc. as, owing to the fact that no wires are needed, simultaneous transmission to many subscribers can be effected as easily as to a few",[14] echoing the words of a handout distributed to the demonstration witnesses, which stated "[Radio] Telephony is admirably adapted for transmitting news, stock quotations, music, race reports, etc. simultaneously over a city, on account of the fact that no wires are needed and a single apparatus can distribute to ten thousand subscribers as easily as to a few. It is proposed to erect stations for this purpose in the large cities here and abroad."[15] However, other than two holiday transmissions reportedly made shortly after these demonstrations, Fessenden does not appear to have conducted any radio broadcasts for the general public, or to have even given additional thought about the potential of a regular broadcast service, and in a 1908 article providing a comprehensive review of the potential uses for his radiotelephone invention, he made no references to broadcasting.[16] Because there was no way to amplify electrical currents at this time, modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire. This meant that the full transmitter power flowed through the microphone, and even using water cooling, the power handling ability of the microphones severely limited the power of the transmissions. Ultimately only a small number of large and powerful Alexanderson alternators would be developed. However, they would be almost exclusively used for long-range radiotelegraph communication, and occasionally for radiotelephone experimentation, but were never used for general broadcasting. Arc transmitters Almost all of the continuous wave AM transmissions made prior to 1915 were made by versions of the arc converter transmitter, which had been initially developed by Valdemar Poulsen in 1903.[17] Arc transmitters worked by producing a pulsating electrical arc in an enclosed hydrogen atmosphere. They were much more compact than alternator transmitters, and could operate on somewhat higher transmitting frequencies. However, they suffered from some of the same deficiencies. The lack of any means to amplify electrical currents meant that, like the alternator transmitters, modulation was usually accomplished by a microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire, which again resulted in overheating issues, even with the use of water-cooled microphones. Thus, transmitter powers tended to be limited. The arc was also somewhat unstable, which reduced audio quality. Experimenters who used arc transmitters for their radiotelephone research included Ernst Ruhmer, Quirino Majorana, Charles "Doc" Herrold, and Lee de Forest. Vacuum tube transmitters Advances in vacuum tube technology (called "valves" in British usage), especially after around 1915, revolutionized radio technology. Vacuum tube devices could be used to amplify electrical currents, which overcame the overheating issues of needing to insert microphones directly in the transmission antenna circuit. Vacuum tube transmitters also provided high-quality AM signals, and could operate on higher transmitting frequencies than alternator and arc transmitters.[18] Non-governmental radio transmissions were prohibited in many countries during World War I, but AM radiotelephony technology advanced greatly due to wartime research, and after the war the availability of tubes sparked a great increase in the number of amateur radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. Vacuum tubes remained the central technology of radio for 40 years, until transistors began to dominate in the late 1950s, and are still used in the highest power broadcast transmitters. Receivers 1938 Zenith Model 12-S vacuum-tube console radio, capable of picking up mediumwave and shortwave AM transmissions. "All Wave" receivers could also pick up the third AM band, longwave stations. Unlike telegraph and telephone systems, which used completely different types of equipment, most radio receivers were equally suitable for both radiotelegraph and radiotelephone reception. In 1903 and 1904 the electrolytic detector and thermionic diode (Fleming valve) were invented by Reginald Fessenden and John Ambrose Fleming, respectively. Most important, in 1904–1906 the crystal detector, the simplest and cheapest AM detector, was developed by G. W. Pickard. Homemade crystal radios spread rapidly during the next 15 years, providing ready audiences for the first radio broadcasts. One limitation of crystals sets was the lack of amplifying the signals, so listeners had to use earphones, and it required the development of vacuum-tube receivers before loudspeakers could be used. The dynamic cone loudspeaker, invented in 1924, greatly improved audio frequency response over the previous horn speakers, allowing music to be reproduced with good fidelity.[19] AM radio offered the highest sound quality available in a home audio device prior to the introduction of the high-fidelity, long-playing record in the late 1940s. Listening habits changed in the 1960s due to the introduction of the revolutionary transistor radio, (Regency TR-1, the first transistor radio released December 1954) which was made possible by the invention of the transistor in 1948. (The transistor was invented at Bell labs and released in June 1948). Their compact size — small enough to fit in a shirt pocket — and lower power requirements, compared to vacuum tubes, meant that for the first time radio receivers were readily portable. The transistor radio became the most widely used communication device in history, with billions manufactured by the 1970s. Radio became a ubiquitous "companion medium" which people could take with them anywhere they went. Early experimental broadcasts The demarcation between what is considered "experimental" and "organized" broadcasting is largely arbitrary. Listed below are some of the early AM radio broadcasts, which, due to their irregular schedules and limited purposes, can be classified as "experimental":     Christmas Eve 1906 Until the early 1930s, it was generally accepted that Lee de Forest's series of demonstration broadcasts begun in 1907 were the first transmissions of music and entertainment by radio. However, in 1932 an article prepared by Samuel M. Kintner, a former associate of Reginald Fessenden, asserted that Fessenden had actually conducted two earlier broadcasts.[20] This claim was based solely on information included in a January 29, 1932, letter that Fessenden had sent to Kintner. (Fessenden subsequently died five months before Kintner's article appeared). In his letter, Fessenden reported that, on the evening of December 24, 1906 (Christmas Eve), he had made the first of two broadcasts of music and entertainment to a general audience, using the alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Fessenden remembered producing a short program that included playing a phonograph record, followed by his playing the violin and singing, and closing with a bible reading. He also stated that a second short program was broadcast on December 31 (New Year's Eve). The intended audience for both transmissions was primarily shipboard radio operators along the Atlantic seaboard. Fessenden claimed these two programs had been widely publicized in advance, with the Christmas Eve broadcast heard "as far down" as Norfolk, Virginia, while the New Year Eve's broadcast had been received in the West Indies.[21] However, extensive efforts to verify Fessenden's claim during both the 50th[22] and 100th[23] anniversaries of the claimed broadcasts, which included reviewing ships' radio log accounts and other contemporary sources, have so far failed to confirm that these reported holiday broadcasts actually took place.     1907-1912 Lee de Forest conducted multiple test broadcasts beginning in 1907, and was widely quoted promoting the potential of organized radio broadcasting. Using a series of arc transmitters, he made his first entertainment broadcast in February 1907, transmitting electronic telharmonium music from his Parker Building laboratory station in New York City.[24] This was followed by tests that included, in the fall, Eugenia Farrar singing "I Love You Truly" and "Just Awearyin' for You".[25] Additional promotional events in New York included live performances by famous Metropolitan Opera stars such as Mariette Mazarin and Enrico Caruso. He also broadcast phonograph music from the Eiffel Tower in Paris. His company equipped the U.S. Navy's Great White Fleet with experimental arc radiotelephones for their 1908 around-the-world cruise, and the operators broadcast phonograph music as the ships entered ports like San Francisco and Honolulu.[26]     June 1910 In a June 23, 1910, notarized letter that was published in a catalog produced by the Electro Importing Company of New York, Charles "Doc" Herrold reported that, using one of that company's spark coils to create a "high frequency spark" transmitter, he had successfully broadcast "wireless phone concerts to local amateur wireless men". Herrold lived in San Jose, California.[27]     1913 Robert Goldschmidt began experimental radiotelephone transmissions from the Laeken station, near Brussels, Belgium, and by March 13, 1914 the tests had been heard as far away as the Eiffel Tower in Paris.[28]     1914-1919 "University of Wisconsin electrical engineering Professor Edward Bennett sets up a personal radio transmitter on campus and in June 1915 is issued an Experimental radio station license with the call sign 9XM.[29] Activities included regular Morse Code broadcasts of weather forecasts and sending game reports for a Wisconsin-Ohio State basketball game on February 17, 1917.     January 15, 1920 Broadcasting in the United Kingdom began with impromptu news and phonograph music over 2MT, the 15 kW experimental tube transmitter at Marconi's factory in Chelmsford, Essex, at a frequency of 120 kHz. On June 15, 1920, the Daily Mail newspaper sponsored the first scheduled British radio concert, by the famed Australian opera diva Nellie Melba.[30] This transmission was heard throughout much of Europe, including in Berlin, Paris, The Hague, Madrid, Spain, and Sweden. Chelmsford continued broadcasting concerts with noted performers. A few months later, in spite of burgeoning popularity, the government ended the broadcasts, due to complaints that the station's longwave signal was interfering with more important communication, in particular military aircraft radio.[31] Organized broadcasting     People who weren't around in the Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for the first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio.     — Red Barber, sportscaster, [32] In July 1912, Charles "Doc" Herrold began weekly broadcasts in San Jose, California, using an arc transmitter. Broadcasting in Germany began 1922 as a Post Office monopoly on a subscription basis, using sealed receivers which could only receive one station. Following World War I, the number of stations providing a regular broadcasting service greatly increased, primarily due to advances in vacuum-tube technology. In response to ongoing activities, government regulators eventually codified standards for which stations could make broadcasts intended for the general public, for example, in the United States formal recognition of a "broadcasting service" came with the establishment of regulations effective December 1, 1921,[33] and Canadian authorities created a separate category of "radio-telephone broadcasting stations" in April 1922.[34] However, there were numerous cases of entertainment broadcasts being presented on a regular schedule before their formal recognition by government regulators. Some early examples include:     July 21, 1912 The first person to transmit entertainment broadcasts on a regular schedule appears to have been Charles "Doc" Herrold, who inaugurated weekly programs, using an arc transmitter, from his Wireless School station in San Jose, California.[35] The broadcasts continued until the station was shut down due to the entrance of the United States into World War I in April 1917.     March 28, 1914 The Laeken station in Belgium, under the oversight of Robert Goldschmidt, inaugurated a weekly series of concerts,[36] transmitted at 5:00 p.m. on Saturdays. These continued for about four months until July, and were ended by the start of World War I.[37] In August 1914 the Laeken facilities were destroyed, to keep them from falling into the hands of invading German troops.     November 1916 De Forest perfected "Oscillion" power vacuum tubes, capable of use in radio transmitters, and inaugurated daily broadcasts of entertainment and news from his New York "Highbridge" station, 2XG. This station also suspended operations in April 1917 due to the prohibition of civilian radio transmissions following the United States' entry into World War I.[38] Its most publicized program was the broadcasting of election results for the Hughes-Wilson presidential election on November 7, 1916, with updates provided by wire from the New York American offices. An estimated 7,000 radio listeners as far as 200 miles (320 kilometers) from New York heard election returns interspersed with patriotic music.[39]     April 17, 1919 Shortly after the end of World War I, F. S. McCullough at the Glenn L. Martin aviation plant in Cleveland, Ohio, began a weekly series of phonograph concerts.[40] However, the broadcasts were soon suspended, due to interference complaints by the U.S. Navy.[41]     November 6, 1919 The first scheduled (pre-announced in the press) Dutch radio broadcast was made by Nederlandsche Radio Industrie station PCGG at The Hague, which began regular concerts broadcasts. It found it had a large audience outside the Netherlands, mostly in the UK. (Rather than true AM signals, at least initially this station used a form of narrowband FM, which required receivers to be slightly detuned to receive the signals using slope detection.)[42]     Late 1919 De Forest's New York station, 2XG, returned to the airwaves in late 1919 after having to suspend operations during World War I.[43] The station continued to operate until early 1920, when it was shut down because the transmitter had been moved to a new location without permission.     May 20, 1920 Experimental Canadian Marconi station XWA (later CFCF, deleted in 2010 as CINW) in Montreal began regular broadcasts,[44] and claims status as the first commercial broadcaster in the world.     June 1920 De Forest transferred 2XG's former transmitter to San Francisco, California, where it was relicensed as 6XC, the "California Theater station".[45] By June 1920 the station began transmitting daily concerts.[46] De Forest later stated that this was the "first radio-telephone station devoted solely" to broadcasting to the public.[47]     August 20, 1920 On this date the Detroit News began daily transmissions over station 8MK (later WWJ), located in the newspaper's headquarters building. The newspaper began extensively publicizing station operations beginning on August 31, 1920, with a special program featuring primary election returns.[48] Station management later claimed the title of being where "commercial radio broadcasting began".[49]     November 2, 1920 Beginning on October 17, 1919,[50] Westinghouse engineer Frank Conrad began broadcasting recorded and live music on a semi-regular schedule from his home station, 8XK in Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania. This inspired his employer to begin its own ambitious service at the company's headquarters in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Operations began, initially with the call sign 8ZZ, with an election night program featuring election returns on November 2, 1920.[51] As KDKA, the station adopted a daily schedule beginning on December 21, 1920.[52] This station is another contender for the title of "first commercial station".     January 3, 1921 University of Wisconsin - Regular schedule of voice broadcasts begin; 9XM is the first radio station in the United States to provide the weather forecast by voice (Jan. 3). In September, farm market broadcasts are added. On Nov. 1, 9XM carries the first live broadcast of a symphony orchestra -- the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra from the UW Armory using a single microphone.[53] Radio networks Main article: Radio network A live radio play being broadcast at NBC studios in New York. Most 1920s through 1940s network programs were broadcast live. Because most longwave radio frequencies were used for international radiotelegraph communication, a majority of early broadcasting stations operated on mediumwave frequencies, whose limited range generally restricted them to local audiences. One method for overcoming this limitation, as well as a method for sharing program costs, was to create radio networks, linking stations together with telephone lines to provide a nationwide audience. United States In the U.S., the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) was the first organization to create a radio network, and also to promote commercial advertising, which it called "toll" broadcasting. Its flagship station, WEAF (now WFAN) in New York City, sold blocks of airtime to commercial sponsors that developed entertainment shows containing commercial messages. AT&T held a monopoly on quality telephone lines, and by 1924 had linked 12 stations in Eastern cities into a "chain". The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), General Electric and Westinghouse organized a competing network around its own flagship station, RCA's WJZ (now WABC) in New York City, but were hampered by AT&T's refusal to lease connecting lines or allow them to sell airtime. In 1926 AT&T sold its radio operations to RCA, which used them to form the nucleus of the new NBC network.[54] By the 1930s, most of the major radio stations in the country were affiliated with networks owned by two companies, NBC and CBS. In 1934, a third national network, the Mutual Radio Network was formed as a cooperative owned by its stations. United Kingdom A BBC receiver licence from 1922. The British government required listeners to purchase yearly licences, which financed the stations. A second country which quickly adopted network programming was the United Kingdom, and its national network quickly became a prototype for a state-managed monopoly of broadcasting.[55] A rising interest in radio broadcasting by the British public pressured the government to reintroduce the service, following its suspension in 1920. However, the government also wanted to avoid what it termed the "chaotic" U.S. experience of allowing large numbers of stations to operate with few restrictions. There were also concerns about broadcasting becoming dominated by the Marconi company.[56] Arrangements were made for six large radio manufacturers to form a consortium, the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), established on 18 October 1922, which was given a monopoly on broadcasting. This enterprise was supported by a tax on radio sets sales, plus an annual license fee on receivers, collected by the Post Office.[57] Initially the eight stations were allowed regional autonomy. In 1927, the original broadcasting organization was replaced by a government chartered British Broadcasting Corporation.[58] an independent nonprofit supported solely by a 10 shilling receiver license fee.[58] A mixture of populist and high brow programmes were carried by the National and Regional networks. "Golden Age of Radio" Main article: Golden Age of Radio When broadcasting began in 1920, music was played on air without regard to its copyright status. Music publishers challenged this practice as being copyright infringement, which for a time kept many popular tunes off the air, and this 1925 U.S. editorial cartoon shows a rich publisher muzzling two radio performers. The radio industry eventually agreed to make royalty payments. The period from the early 1920s through the 1940s is often called the "Golden Age of Radio". During this period AM radio was the main source of home entertainment, until it was replaced by television. For the first time entertainment was provided from outside the home, replacing traditional forms of entertainment such as oral storytelling and music from family members. New forms were created, including radio plays, mystery serials, soap operas, quiz shows, variety hours, situation comedies and children's shows. Radio news, including remote reporting, allowed listeners to be vicariously present at notable events. Radio greatly eased the isolation of rural life. Political officials could now speak directly to millions of citizens. One of the first to take advantage of this was American president Franklin Roosevelt, who became famous for his fireside chats during the Great Depression. However, broadcasting also provided the means to use propaganda as a powerful government tool, and contributed to the rise of fascist and communist ideologies. Decline in popularity In the 1940s two new broadcast media, FM radio and television, began to provide extensive competition with the established broadcasting services. The AM radio industry suffered a serious loss of audience and advertising revenue, and coped by developing new strategies. Network broadcasting gave way to format broadcasting: instead of broadcasting the same programs all over the country, stations individually adopted specialized formats which appealed to different audiences, such as regional and local news, sports, "talk" programs, and programs targeted at minorities. Instead of live music, most stations began playing less expensive recorded music. In the late 1970s, spurred by the exodus of musical programming to FM stations, the AM radio industry in the United States developed technology for broadcasting in stereo. Other nations adopted AM stereo, most commonly choosing Motorola's C-QUAM, and in 1993 the United States also made the C-QUAM system its standard, after a period allowing four different standards to compete. The selection of a single standard improved acceptance of AM stereo,[59] however overall there was limited adoption of AM stereo worldwide, and interest declined after 1990. With the continued migration of AM stations away from music to news, sports, and talk formats, receiver manufacturers saw little reason to adopt the more expensive stereo tuners, and thus radio stations have little incentive to upgrade to stereo transmission. In countries where the use of directional antennas is common, such as the United States, transmitter sites consisting of multiple towers often occupy large tracts of land that have significantly increased in value over the decades, to the point that the value of land exceeds that of the station itself. This sometimes results in the sale of the transmitter site, with the station relocating to a more distant shared site using significantly less power,[60] or completely shutting down operations.[61] The ongoing development of alternative transmission systems, including Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio, and HD (digital) radio, continued the decline of the popularity of the traditional broadcast technologies. These new options, including the introduction of Internet streaming, particularly resulted in the reduction of shortwave transmissions, as international broadcasters found ways to reach their audiences more easily.[62] AM band revitalization efforts in the United States The FM broadcast band was established in 1941 in the United States, and at the time some suggested that the AM band would soon be eliminated. In 1948 wide-band FM's inventor, Edwin H. Armstrong, predicted that "The broadcasters will set up FM stations which will parallel, carry the same program, as over their AM stations... eventually the day will come, of course, when we will no longer have to build receivers capable of receiving both types of transmission, and then the AM transmitters will disappear."[63] However, FM stations actually struggled for many decades, and it wasn't until 1978 that FM listenership surpassed that of AM stations. Since then the AM band's share of the audience has continued to decline. Fairness Doctrine repeal Main article: FCC fairness doctrine The elimination of the Fairness Doctrine requirement in 1987 meant that talk shows, which were commonly carried by AM stations, could adopt a more focused presentation on controversial topics, without the distraction of having to provide airtime for any contrasting opinions. In addition, satellite distribution made it possible for programs to be economically carried on a national scale. The introduction of nationwide talk shows, most prominently Rush Limbaugh's beginning in 1988, was sometimes credited with "saving AM radio". However, these stations tended to attract older listeners who were of lesser interest to advertisers, and AM radio's audience share continued to erode.[64] AM stereo and AMAX standards Main articles: AM stereo § Adoption in the United States, and AMAX Radios meeting the AMAX standards could display a certification logo, with the "stereo" notation reserved for those capable of AM stereo reception In 1961 the FCC adopted a single standard for FM stereo transmissions, which was widely credited with enhancing FM's popularity. Developing the technology for AM broadcasting in stereo was challenging due to the need to limit the transmissions to a 20 kHz bandwidth, while also making the transmissions backward compatible with existing non-stereo receivers. In 1990 the FCC authorized an AM stereo standard developed by Magnavox, but two years later revised its decision to instead approve four competing implementations, saying it would "let the marketplace decide" which was best.[59] The lack of a common standard resulted in consumer confusion and increased the complexity and cost of producing AM stereo receivers. In 1993 the FCC again revised its policy, by selecting C-QUAM as the sole AM stereo implementation. In 1993 the FCC also endorsed, although it did not make mandatory, AMAX broadcasting standards that were developed by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) with the intention of helping AM stations, especially ones with musical formats, become more competitive with FM broadcasters by promoting better quality receivers. However, the stereo AM and AMAX initiatives had little impact, and a 2015 review of these events concluded that "Initially the consumer manufacturers made a concerted attempt to specify performance of AM receivers through the 1993 AMAX standard, a joint effort of the EIA and the NAB, with FCC backing... The FCC rapidly followed up on this with codification of the CQUAM AM stereo standard, also in 1993. At this point, the stage appeared to be set for rejuvenation of the AM band. Nevertheless, with the legacy of confusion and disappointment in the rollout of the multiple incompatible AM stereo systems, and failure of the manufacturers (including the auto makers) to effectively promote AMAX radios, coupled with the ever-increasing background of noise in the band, the general public soon lost interest and moved on to other media."[65] Expanded band Main article: AM expanded band § United States On June 8, 1988 an International Telecommunication Union (ITU)-sponsored conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil adopted provisions, effective July 1, 1990, to extend the upper end of the Region 2 AM broadcast band, by adding ten frequencies which spanned from 1610 kHz to 1700 kHz.[66] At this time it was suggested that as many as 500 U.S. stations could be assigned to the new frequencies.[67] On April 12, 1990 the FCC voted to begin the process of populating the expanded band, with the main priority being the reduction of interference on the existing AM band, by transferring selected stations to the new frequencies. It was now estimated that the expanded band could accommodate around 300 U.S. stations.[68] However, it turned out that the number of possible station reassignments was much lower, with a 2006 accounting reporting that, out of 4,758 licensed U.S. AM stations, only 56 were now operating on the expanded band.[69] Moreover, despite an initial requirement that by the end of five years either the original station or its expanded band counterpart had to cease broadcasting,[70] as of 2015 there were 25 cases where the original standard band station was still on the air, despite also operating as an expanded band station. HD radio Main article: HD Radio right HD Radio is a digital audio broadcasting method developed by iBiquity. In 2002 its "hybrid mode", which simultaneously transmits a standard analog signal as well as a digital one, was approved by the FCC for use by AM stations, initially only during daytime hours, due to concerns that during the night its wider bandwidth would cause unacceptable interference to stations on adjacent frequencies.[71] In 2007 nighttime operation was also authorized.[72] The number of hybrid mode AM stations is not exactly known, because the FCC does not keep track of the stations employing the system, and some authorized stations have later turned it off. But as of 2020 the commission estimated that fewer than 250 AM stations were transmitting hybrid mode signals.[73] On October 27, 2020, the FCC voted to allow AM stations to eliminate their analog transmissions and convert to all-digital operation, with the requirement that stations making the change had to continue to make programming available over "at least one free over-the-air digital programming stream that is comparable to or better in audio quality than a standard analog broadcast".[74] FM translator stations Main article: Broadcast relay station § United States right Many U.S. AM stations no longer publicize their AM signals, instead promoting simulcasts by FM band translators and Internet streams.[75] Despite the various actions, AM band audiences continued to contract, and the number of stations began to slowly decline. A 2009 FCC review reported that "The story of AM radio over the last 50 years has been a transition from being the dominant form of audio entertainment for all age groups to being almost non-existent to the youngest demographic groups. Among persons aged 12-24, AM accounts for only 4% of listening, while FM accounts for 96%. Among persons aged 25-34, AM accounts for only 9% of listening, while FM accounts for 91%. The median age of listeners to the AM band is 57 years old, a full generation older than the median age of FM listeners."[76] In 2009 the FCC made a major regulatory change, when it adopted a policy allowing AM stations to simulcast over FM translator stations. Translators had previously been available only to FM broadcasters, in order to increase coverage in fringe areas. Their assignment for use by AM stations was intended to approximate the station's daytime coverage, which in cases where the stations reduced power at night, often resulted in expanded nighttime coverage. Although the translator stations are not permitted to originate programming when the "primary" AM station is broadcasting, they are permitted to do so during nighttime hours for AM stations licensed for daytime-only operation.[77] Prior to the adoption of the new policy, as of March 18, 2009 the FCC had issued 215 Special Temporary Authority grants for FM translators relaying AM stations.[77] After creation of the new policy, by 2011 there were approximately 500 in operation,[78] and as of 2020 approximately 2,800 of the 4,570 licensed AM stations were rebroadcasting on one or more FM translators.[79] In 2009 the FCC stated that "We do not intend to allow these cross-service translators to be used as surrogates for FM stations".[76] However, based on station slogans, especially in the case of recently adopted musical formats, in most cases the expectation is that listeners will primarily be tuning into the FM signal rather than the nominally "primary" AM station. A 2020 review noted that "for many owners, keeping their AM stations on the air now is pretty much just about retaining their FM translator footprint rather than keeping the AM on the air on its own merits".[79] Additional activities In 2018 the FCC, led by then-Commission Chairman Ajit Pai, proposed greatly reducing signal protection for 50 kW Class A "clear channel" stations. This would allow co-channel secondary stations to operate with higher powers, especially at night. However, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) expressed concerns that this would reduce the effectiveness of emergency communications.[80] Technical information AM radio technology is simpler than later transmission systems. An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone. However, the simplicity of AM transmission also makes it vulnerable to "static" (radio noise, radio frequency interference) created by both natural atmospheric electrical activity such as lightning, and electrical and electronic equipment, including fluorescent lights, motors and vehicle ignition systems. In large urban centres, AM radio signals can be severely disrupted by metal structures and tall buildings. As a result, AM radio tends to do best in areas where FM frequencies are in short supply, or in thinly populated or mountainous areas where FM coverage is poor. Great care must be taken to avoid mutual interference between stations operating on the same frequency. In general, an AM transmission needs to be about 20 times stronger than an interfering signal to avoid a reduction in quality, in contrast to FM signals, where the "capture effect" means that the dominant signal needs to only be about twice as strong as the interfering one. To allow room for more stations on the mediumwave broadcast band in the United States, in June 1989 the FCC adopted a National Radio Systems Committee (NRSC) standard that limited maximum transmitted audio bandwidth to 10.2 kHz, limiting occupied bandwidth to 20.4 kHz. The former audio limitation was 15 kHz resulting in bandwidth of 30 kHz. Another common limitation on AM fidelity is the result of receiver design, although some efforts have been made to improve this, notably through the AMAX standards adopted in the United States. Broadcast band frequencies AM broadcasts are used on several frequency bands. The allocation of these bands is governed by the ITU's Radio Regulations and, on the national level, by each country's telecommunications administration (the FCC in the U.S., for example) subject to international agreements. The frequency ranges given here are those that are allocated to stations. Because of the bandwidth taken up by the sidebands, the range allocated for the band as a whole is usually about 5 kHz wider on either side. Longwave broadcasting Longwave (also known as Low frequency (LF)) (148.5 kHz – 283.5 kHz) Broadcasting stations in this band are assigned transmitting frequencies in the range 153 kHz – 279 kHz, and generally maintain 9 kHz spacing. Longwave assignments for broadcasting only exist in ITU Region 1 (Europe, Africa, and northern and central Asia) and are not allocated elsewhere. Individual stations have coverage measured in the hundreds of kilometers; however, there is only a very limited number of available broadcasting slots. Most of the earliest broadcasting experiments took place on longwave frequencies; however, complaints about interference from existing services, particularly the military, led to most broadcasting moving to higher frequencies. Medium-wave broadcasting Medium wave (also known as Medium frequency (MF)), which is by far the most commonly used AM broadcasting band. In ITU Regions 1 and 3, transmitting frequencies run from 531 kHz to 1602 kHz, with 9 kHz spacing (526.5 kHz - 1606.5 kHz), and in ITU Region 2 (the Americas), transmitting frequencies are 530 kHz to 1700 kHz, using 10 kHz spacing (525 kHz - 1705 kHz), including the ITU Extended AM broadcast band, authorized in Region 2, between 1605 kHz and 1705 kHz, previously used for police radio.[81] Shortwave broadcasting Shortwave (also known as High frequency (HF)) transmissions range from approximately 2.3 to 26.1 MHz, divided into 14 broadcast bands. Shortwave broadcasts generally use a narrow 5 kHz channel spacing. Shortwave is used by audio services intended to be heard at great distances from the transmitting station. The long range of shortwave broadcasts comes at the expense of lower audio fidelity. Most broadcast services use AM transmissions, although some use a modified version of AM such as Single-sideband modulation (SSB) or an AM-compatible version of SSB such as "SSB with carrier reinserted". VHF AM broadcasting Beginning in the mid-1930s, the United States evaluated options for the establishment of broadcasting stations using much higher transmitting frequencies. In October 1937, the FCC announced a second band of AM stations, consisting of 75 channels spanning from 41.02 to 43.98 MHz, which were informally called Apex. The 40 kHz spacing between adjacent frequencies was four times that of the 10 kHz spacing used on the standard AM broadcast band, which reduced adjacent-frequency interference, and provided more bandwidth for high-fidelity programming. However, this band was eliminated effective 1 January 1941, after the FCC determined that establishing a band of FM stations was preferable.[82] Other distribution methods Main article: Carrier current Beginning in the mid-1930s, starting with "The Brown Network" at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, a very low power broadcasting method known as carrier current was developed, and mostly adopted on U.S. college campuses. In this approach AM broadcast signals are distributed over electric power lines, which radiate a signal receivable at a short distance from the lines.[83] In Switzerland a system known as "wire broadcasting" (Telefonrundspruch in German) transmitted AM signals over telephone lines in the longwave band until 1998, when it was shut down.[84] In the UK, Rediffusion was an early pioneer of AM radio cable distribution. Hybrid digital broadcast systems, which combine (mono analog) AM transmission with digital sidebands, have started to be used around the world. In the United States, iBiquity's proprietary HD Radio has been adopted and approved by the FCC for medium wave transmissions,[85] while Digital Radio Mondiale is a more open effort often used on the shortwave bands, and can be used alongside many AM broadcasts. Both of these standards are capable of broadcasting audio of significantly greater fidelity than that of standard AM with current bandwidth limitations, and a theoretical frequency response of 0–16 kHz, in addition to stereo sound and text data. Microbroadcasting See also: Low-power broadcasting Some microbroadcasters, especially those in the United States operating under the FCC's Part 15 rules, and pirate radio operators on mediumwave and shortwave, achieve greater range than possible on the FM band. On mediumwave these stations often transmit on 1610 kHz to 1710 kHz. Hobbyists also use low-power AM (LPAM) transmitters to provide programming for vintage radio equipment in areas where AM programming is not widely available or does not carry programming the listener desires; in such cases the transmitter, which is designed to cover only the immediate property and perhaps nearby areas, is connected to a computer, an FM radio or an MP3 player. Microbroadcasting and pirate radio have generally been supplanted by streaming audio on the Internet, but some schools and hobbyists still use LPAM transmissions. " (wikipedia.org) "An alarm clock (or sometimes just an alarm) is a clock that is designed to alert an individual or group of individuals at a specified time. The primary function of these clocks is to awaken people from their night's sleep or short naps; they are sometimes used for other reminders as well. Most use sound; some use light or vibration. Some have sensors to identify when a person is in a light stage of sleep, in order to avoid waking someone who is deeply asleep, which causes tiredness, even if the person has had adequate sleep. To turn off the sound or light, a button or handle on the clock is pressed; most clocks automatically turn off the alarm if left unattended long enough. A classic analog alarm clock has an extra hand or inset dial that is used to specify the time at which the alarm will ring. Alarm clocks are also used in mobile phones, watches, and computers. Many alarm clocks have radio receivers that can be set to start playing at specified times, and are known as clock radios. Some alarm clocks can set multiple alarms. A progressive alarm clock can have different alarms for different times (see next-generation alarms) and play music of the user's choice. Most modern televisions, computers, mobile phones and digital watches have alarm functions that turn on or sound alerts at a specific time. ... Types Traditional analogue clocks Traditional mechanical alarm clocks have one or two bells that ring by means of a mainspring that powers a gear to quickly move a hammer back and forth between the two bells or between the interior sides of a single bell. In some models, the metal cover at back of the clock itself also functions as the bell. In an electronically operated bell-style alarm clock, the bell is rung by an electromagnetic circuit and armature to turn the circuit on and off repeatedly.[1][self-published source?] Digital Digital alarm clocks can make other noises. Simple battery-powered alarm clocks make a loud buzzing or beeping sound to wake a sleeper, while novelty alarm clocks can speak, laugh, sing, or play sounds from nature.[1] History The Obelisk of Theodosius, detail of the pedestal: Theodosius I offers laurels of victory; we can see the water organ of Ctesibius, in the lower right-hand corner. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428–348 BC) was said to possess a large water clock with an unspecified alarm signal similar to the sound of a water organ; he used it at night, possibly for signaling the beginning of his lectures at dawn (Athenaeus 4.174c).[2] The Hellenistic engineer and inventor Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC) fitted his clepsydras with dial and pointer for indicating the time, and added elaborate "alarm systems, which could be made to drop pebbles on a gong, or blow trumpets (by forcing bell-jars down into water and taking the compressed air through a beating reed) at pre-set times" (Vitruv 11.11).[3] The late Roman statesman Cassiodorus (c. 485–585) advocated in his rulebook for monastic life the water clock as a useful alarm for the "soldiers of Christ" (Cassiod. Inst. 30.4 f.).[4] The Christian rhetorician Procopius described in detail prior to 529 a complex public striking clock in his home town Gaza which featured an hourly gong and figures moving mechanically day and night.[4] In China, a striking clock was devised by the Buddhist monk and inventor Yi Xing (683–727).[5] The Chinese engineers Zhang Sixun and Su Song integrated striking clock mechanisms in astronomical clocks in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively.[6] A striking clock outside of China was the water-powered clock tower near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, which struck once every hour. It is the subject of a book, On the Construction of Clocks and their Use (1203), by Riḍwān ibn al-Sāʿātī, the son of clockmaker. In 1235, an early monumental water-powered alarm clock that "announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night" was completed in the entrance hall of the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad.[7] From the 14th century, some clock towers in Western Europe were also capable of chiming at a fixed time every day; the earliest of these was described by the Florentine writer Dante Alighieri in 1319.[8] The most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Mark's Clocktower in St Mark's Square, Venice. The St Mark's Clock was assembled in 1493, by the famous clockmaker Gian Carlo Rainieri from Reggio Emilia, where his father Gian Paolo Rainieri had already constructed another famous device in 1481. In 1497, Simone Campanato moulded the great bell (h. 1,56 m., diameter m. 1,27), which was put on the top of the tower where it was alternatively beaten by the Due Mori (Two Moors), two bronze statues (h. 2,60) handling a hammer. User-settable mechanical alarm clocks date back at least to 15th-century Europe. These early alarm clocks had a ring of holes in the clock dial and were set by placing a pin in the appropriate hole.[9][10] The first American alarm clock was created in 1787 by Levi Hutchins in Concord, New Hampshire. This device he made only for himself however, and it only rang at 4 am, in order to wake him for his job.[11] The French inventor Antoine Redier was the first to patent an adjustable mechanical alarm clock, in 1847.[12] Alarm clocks, like almost all other consumer goods in the United States, ceased production in the spring of 1942, as the factories which made them were converted over to war work during World War II, but they were one of the first consumer items to resume manufacture for civilian use, in November 1944.[13][14] By that time, a critical shortage of alarm clocks had developed due to older clocks wearing out or breaking down. Workers were late for, or missed completely, their scheduled shifts in jobs critical to the war effort.[14] In a pooling arrangement overseen by the Office of Price Administration, several clock companies were allowed to start producing new clocks, some of which were continuations of pre-war designs, and some of which were new designs, thus becoming among the first "postwar" consumer goods to be made, before the war had even ended.[15][16] The price of these "emergency" clocks was, however, still strictly regulated by the Office of Price Administration.[14] The first radio alarm clock was invented by James F. Reynolds, in the 1940s and another design was also invented by Paul L. Schroth Sr.[17] Clock radio "Clock radio" redirects here. For the clocks synchronised by radio signals, see radio clock. A mid-1940s alarm clock radio with AM radio stations only. Sony Dream Machine ICF C242 A clock radio is an alarm clock and radio receiver integrated in one device.[18] The clock may turn on the radio at a designated time to wake the user, and usually includes a buzzer alarm. Typically, clock radios are placed on the bedside stand. Some models offer dual alarm for awakening at different times and "snooze", usually a large button on the top that silences the alarm and sets it to resume sounding a few minutes later.[19] Some clock radios also have a "sleep" timer, which turns the radio on for a set amount of time (usually around one hour). This is useful for people who like to fall asleep while listening to the radio. Newer clock radios are available with other music sources such as iPod, iPhone, and/or audio CD. When the alarm is triggered, it can play a set radio station or the music from a selected music source to awaken the sleeper. Some models come with a dock for iPod/iPhone that also charges the device while it is docked. They can play AM/FM radio, iPod/iPhone or CD like a typical music player as well (without being triggered by the alarm function). A few popular models offer "nature sounds" like rain, forest, wind, sea, waterfall etc., in place of the buzzer. A modern clock radio features a radio/iPod/buzzer as alarms. Clock radios are powered by AC power from the wall socket. In the event of a power interruption, older electronic digital models used to reset the time to midnight (00:00) and lose alarm settings. This would cause failure to trigger the alarm even if the power is restored. Many newer clock radios feature a battery backup to maintain the time and alarm settings. Some advanced radio clocks (not to be confused with clocks with AM/FM radios) have a feature which sets the time automatically using signals from atomic clock-synced time signal radio stations such as WWV, making the clock accurate and immune to time reset due to power interruptions. Alarms in technology Computer alarms Alarm clock software programs have been developed for personal computers. There are Web-based alarm clocks, some of which may allow a virtually unlimited number of alarm times (i.e. Personal information manager) and personalized tones.[20] However, unlike mobile phone alarms, they have some limitations. They do not work when the computer is shut off or in sleep mode.[21] Mobile phone alarms Many modern mobile phones feature built-in alarm clocks that do not need the phone to be switched on for the alarm to ring off.[22] Some of these mobile phones feature the ability for the user to set the alarm's ringtone, and in some cases music can be downloaded to the phone and then chosen to play for waking.[23] Next-generation alarms Sleeptracker, an alarm clock that tracks sleep phases Scientific studies on sleep having shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Alarm clocks involving sleep stage monitoring appeared on the market in 2005.[24] The alarm clocks use sensing technologies such as EEG electrodes and accelerometers to wake people from sleep.[25][26] Dawn simulators are another technology meant to mediate these effects.[27] Sleepers can become accustomed to the sound of their alarm clock if it has been used for a period of time, making it less effective.[28][29] Due to progressive alarm clocks' complex waking procedure, they can deter this adaptation due to the body needing to adapt to more stimuli than just a simple sound alert.[30][31] Alarm signals for impaired hearing The deaf and hard of hearing are often unable to perceive auditory alarms when asleep. They may use specialized alarms, including alarms with flashing lights instead of or in addition to noise. Alarms which can connect to vibrating devices (small ones inserted into pillows, or larger ones placed under bedposts to shake the bed) also exist.[32][33] Time switches Main article: Time switch Time switches can be used to turn on anything that will awaken a sleeper, and can therefore be used as alarms. Lights, bells, and radio and TV sets can easily be used.[34] More elaborate devices have also been used, such as machines that automatically prepare tea or coffee. A sound is produced when the drink is ready, so the sleeper awakes to find the freshly brewed drink waiting." (wikipedia.org) "Telechron is the name of a U.S. company that manufactured electric clocks between 1912 and 1992. "Telechron" is derived from the Greek words tele, meaning "far off," and chronos, "time," thus referring to the transmission of time over long distances. Founded by Henry Ellis Warren, Telechron introduced the synchronous electric clock, which keeps time by the oscillations of the alternating current electricity that powers it from the electric power grid. Telechron had its heyday between 1925 and 1955, when it sold millions of electric clocks to American consumers. ... Henry Warren: the Synchronous Motor and the Master Clock Warren master clock, installed in utility power plants, made accurate synchronous clocks possible. Henry E. Warren established the company in 1912 in Ashland, Massachusetts. Initially, it was called "The Warren Clock Company," producing battery-powered clocks. These proved unreliable, however, since batteries weakened quickly, which resulted in inaccurate time-keeping. Warren saw electric motors as the solution to this problem. In 1915, he invented a self-starting synchronous motor consisting of a rotor and a coil, which was patented in 1918.[1] A synchronous motor spins at the same rate as the cycle of the alternating current driving it. Synchronous electric clocks had been available previously, but had to be started manually. In later years, Telechron would advertise its clocks as "bringing true time," because power plants had begun to maintain frequency of the alternating current very close to an average of 60 Hz. But such constancy did not yet exist when Warren first experimented with his synchronous motors. Irregularities in the frequency of the alternating current led not only to inaccurate time-keeping but, more seriously, to incompatible power grids in the United States, as power could not readily be transferred from one grid to another. In order to overcome these problems, Warren invented a "master clock," which he installed at the Boston Edison Company in 1916. This master clock had two movements, one driven by a synchronous motor connected to the current produced by the power plant, the other driven by a traditional spring and pendulum. The pendulum was adjusted twice a day in accordance with time signals received from the Naval Observatory. As long as the hands of the electric clock, powered by a 60 Hz synchronous motor, moved along perfectly with those of the "traditional" clock, the power produced by the electric company was uniform.[2] In Electrifying Time, Jim Linz writes that "in 1947, Warren Master Clocks regulated over 95 percent of the electric lines in the United States."[3] It is interesting to note, then, that the uniformity of alternating current in the United States, which was necessary in order to build large power grids, was initially ensured by a very traditional clock system. Furthermore, Henry Warren invented his master clock at first simply in order to guarantee that his synchronous clock motor would provide accurate time. Telechron and Art Deco The Telechron company's success from the 1920s into the 1950s was not solely due to the technical advantages of their clocks, although all Telechron clocks were powered by successive versions of Henry Warren's synchronous motor.[4] Rather, the Telechron company sought to produce clocks whose designs reflected one of the fundamental principles of the Art Deco movement: to combine modern engineering (including mass-production) with the beauty of simple geometric shapes. Thus, Telechron clocks are often considered genuine pieces of art—but art affordable by all, as thousands of them were made. The company employed some of the finest designers of the time, such as Leo Ivan Bruce (1911–1973) and John P. Rainbault. In the evolution of their designs, Telechron clocks were a faithful mirror of their own time. Just as a clock like the "Administrator" (designed by Leo Ivan Bruce) reflected thirties aesthetics, so the "Dimension" had 1950s lines. Telechrons were relatively expensive compared to other clocks. In 1941, their most inexpensive alarm clock was the model 7H117 "Reporter," and it sold for $2.95, the equivalent of $30.00 in 2008 funds. But their beautiful design and amazing reliability assured a brisk market for them throughout the company's most prosperous years.... History As noted above, Henry Warren initially named his company "The Warren Clock Company." It became "Warren Telechron" in 1926. As early as 1917, General Electric acquired a strong interest in Telechron, realizing the economic potential of Warren's invention. When Warren retired in 1943, General Electric gradually absorbed Telechron into its operations. The clocks labeled "Telechron" on the dial, as well as those labeled "General Electric" were both made in the Ashland, Massachusetts factory. GE clocks had their own case, dial and hand designs, as well as model names and numbers, but the internal workings of both brands of clock were always the same Telechron type of movement. A Revere Clock with Westminster Chime (1940) In addition to its association with GE, Telechron cooperated closely with one of America's most famous makers of traditional clocks, the Herschede company. Walter Herschede became interested in synchronous clocks in the 1920s, but did not want to risk the good name of his company by associating it too quickly with the new technology. Thus, he founded the Revere Clock Company as a division of Herschede that would market clocks driven by Telechron motors. These motors, however, were housed in the elegant cases of mantel and grandfather clocks for which Herschede was known; moreover, these clocks were equipped with chimes. Telechron—now the "Clock and Timer Division" of GE—declined in the 1950s, mainly because batteries had become much more long-lived and reliable. Battery-powered clocks have the obvious advantage of not depending on the proximity of a power outlet, and do not require the often somewhat unattractive electric cable. Furthermore, the accuracy of the quartz clock superseded the principles of the synchronous motor. GE tried to respond to the declining market for Warren's technology by producing cheaper, less solidly manufactured clocks. Thus, plastic replaced bakelite or wood as the material for the cases; glass crystals were phased out in favor of plastic ones; and the much less durable S rotor took the place of the H rotor. Nevertheless, the decline of the synchronous clock could not be stopped. GE sold the last of its former Telechron plants in 1979. After successive attempts to revive the business remained fruitless, it closed permanently in 1992. Nonetheless, even if Telechron's original operations have ceased, Telechron continues to exist as a brand: "Telechron" is the name used by a manufacturer of electric timers in Leland, North Carolina.[5] Moreover, a company that spun off from one of Telechron's research labs in 1928 is still flourishing: Electric Time Company manufactures custom tower and post clocks in Medfield, Massachusetts. Electric Time is the only such company in the U.S. that still makes its own clock movements. Limitations of the Telechron Technology Indicating Device on Telechron 2H07-Br From a commercial point of view, it was the increased durability of batteries as well as the invention of the quartz movement that proved fatal to Telechron. From the point of view of the history of technology, however, another problem is more crucial: if the electric power grid is used as a system for the "distribution of time," as Warren himself wrote,[6] then, in the case of a power failure, the clocks stop, and the individual consumers' Telechrons lose their connection with the master clock (and, by implication, with the time provided by the Naval Observatory). If there is a temporary power outage while the owner is out, the running clock will display the incorrect time when he returns. Warren, foreseeing this difficulty, provided his clocks with an "indicating device":[6] a red dot that would appear on the dial whenever the power failed. This red dot alerted the consumer to the need to reset the clock (by obtaining the accurate time through the telephone, for example, or from a radio). Setting the clock would reset the indicator. The electric clock market grew rapidly in the 1930s, and Telechron's patented power interruption indicator gave his clocks an advantage over competing synchronous clocks, but by the 1950s battery-operated clocks that weren't dependent on the power grid took market share, and in the 1960s the quartz clock replaced synchronous clocks. In recent years the problem of how to keep clocks synchronized with primary standards has been solved with the radio clock, which receives time signals not through the electric grid, but from government time radio stations. Collecting Telechron Clocks There is a growing community of hobbyists who collect Telechron clocks. An antique Telechron clock will usually come to life immediately (though sometimes noisily) when it is plugged in.[citation needed] Telechron motors are easily quieted and revived by carefully drilling 2 small holes that just puncture the surface, one on the large section, and one on the small section. A very light oil is injected, and then the small holes are carefully soldered shut. If a heavy oil is used, the clock may fail to keep accurate time until the motor becomes warm. Telechron Alarm Clocks Telechron alarm clocks are particularly popular with collectors. Until about 1940, the overwhelming majority of Telechron alarm clocks had bell alarms. The entire mechanism was enclosed in a bell housing of steel. Atop the clock's coil was a metal strip that vibrated at 60 cycles per second when the alarm was tripped. This strip had a V-shaped arm attached to it, ending in a striker, which vibrated in turn against the bell housing. With the approach of war, restrictions on various metals required a reduction in their use, and the bell housing was eliminated, with only the metal strip above the coil remaining. This in itself, however, provided a loud buzz when the alarm was tripped (and was the basis of the alarm in all brands of alarm clocks for many years after the war). Post-war, very few Telechrons had bell alarms, and the bell had disappeared completely by 1960. Telechron was one of the first companies to introduce what became known as the "snooze" alarm in the early 1950s." (wikipedia.org) "Art Deco, sometimes referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I.[1] It influenced the design of buildings, furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, cinemas, trains, ocean liners, and everyday objects such as radios and vacuum cleaners.[2] It took its name, short for Arts Décoratifs, from the Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes (International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925.[3] Art Deco combined modern styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, it represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological progress. From its outset, Art Deco was influenced by the bold geometric forms of Cubism and the Vienna Secession; the bright colours of Fauvism and of the Ballets Russes; the updated craftsmanship of the furniture of the eras of Louis Philippe I and Louis XVI; and the exoticized styles of China, Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt and Maya art. It featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. The Empire State Building, Chrysler Building, and other skyscrapers of New York City built during the 1920s and 1930s are monuments to the style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Art Deco became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic. A sleeker form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, featuring curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces.[4] Art Deco is one of the first truly international styles, but its dominance ended with the beginning of World War II and the rise of the strictly functional and unadorned styles of modern architecture and the International Style of architecture that followed." (wikipedia.org)
  • Condition: For parts or not working
  • Condition: Not working. For parts or repair. Please see photos and description.
  • Brand: Singer
  • Model: HE-5060
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: Taiwan
  • Product Line: Solid State

PicClick Insights - SINGER AM CLOCK RADIO HE-5060 mid century rare solid state Taiwan seafoam green PicClick Exclusive

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