1900 2000 Queen Mother Elizabeth II Solid Silver Coin Old Medal The Crown Stamps

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Seller: Top-Rated Seller lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (3,187) 99.7%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 266564330644 1900 2000 Queen Mother Elizabeth II Solid Silver Coin Old Medal The Crown Stamps. Queen Mother Solid Silver Centenary Crown 1900 - 2000 This is Solid Silver 2000 Crown to Commemorate the 100th Birthday of the Queen Mother Complete with the Booklets, Stamps, Original Case and COA The Coin has never been removed from its original air tight coin capsule There are also several stamps The first is a stamp sheet containing 4 stamps of the Queen Mother her daughter Queen Elizabeth II her son now King Charles III and his son Prince William the Prince of Wales There is also a 1990 Stamps from British Antartic Terrritory celebrating 90 years of the Queen Mother it has an image from her Wedding Day when she Married King George VI and the years 1900 & 1990 There is also a Queen Mother Stamp Celebrating her 90th Birthday Also included is a stamp from 1937 when her husband King George VI was crowned it has an image of the the Queen Mother and the late King 2000 UK Coin £5 / Crown Silver Proof Queen Mother Memorial In 2000 The Royal Mint produced this five pound Memorial Crown to mark the  100th Birthday Centenary of the Queen's Mother.  Struck in sterling silver to a proof finish, this coin comes in a  presentation box with a certificate of authentication. Edge In further tribute to the Queen Mother and, recalling the emotive ceremony of her funeral, the words STRENGTH DIGNITY LAUGHTER inspired by the Archbishop of Canterbury's address, appear on the edge. They are separated by the Queen Mother's crown, a visible symbol of royalty The obverse (head), which is dated 2000, bears the fourth major different portrait of the Queen, designed by Ian Rank-Broadley, and introduced in 1998. The coin bears the inscription ELIZABETH II D G REGINA FID DEF. Reverse The reverse, by medallist and sculptor Avril Vaughan ARBS, PSNAD, bears a portrait of the Queen Mother which is poignantly enhanced by a delicate wreath. Specification Denomination:     Five Pounds Alloy:     Sterling .925 Silver Diameter:     38.61mm Weight:     28.28g Obverse Designer     Ian Rank-Broadley Reverse Designer     Avril Vaughan Mint     The Royal Mint Issue Limit:     25,000 Finish     Proof Would make a Magnificent Gift for any who likes the Royal Family or a Keepsake to remember great woman In Excellent Condiiton for its age over 20 years old A Must-Have Royal Family Souvenir

A wonderful item for anyone who loved the Queen

It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage.  I Decided to have a clear out and I hope it will find a good home In Very good  condition  for over 50 years old   Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos.  They don't  do the coin  justice which looks a lot better in real life Click Here to Check out my Other Vintage Items & Coins
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Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon oil portrait of Queen Elizabeth at half length Portrait by Richard Stone, 1986 Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions Tenure    11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952 Coronation    12 May 1937 Empress consort of India Tenure    11 December 1936 – 15 August 1947[a] Born    Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon[b] 4 August 1900 Hitchin or London, England, United Kingdom Died    30 March 2002 (aged 101) Royal Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire, England Burial    9 April 2002 King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Spouse    George VI ​ ​ (m. 1923; died 1952)​ Issue        Elizabeth II     Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon House    Bowes-Lyon Father    Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne Mother    Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck Signature    Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon's signature Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon[b] (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) was Queen of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 to 6 February 1952 as the wife of King George VI. She was concurrently the last Empress of India until the British Raj was dissolved in August 1947. After her husband died, she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother,[2] to avoid confusion with her daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. Born into a family of British nobility, Elizabeth came to prominence in 1923 when she married the Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters Elizabeth and Margaret embodied traditional ideas of family and public service.[3] The Duchess undertook a variety of public engagements and became known for her consistently cheerful countenance.[4] In 1936, Elizabeth's husband unexpectedly became king when his older brother, Edward VIII, abdicated in order to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. Elizabeth then became queen consort. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of the Second World War. During the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. After the war, her husband's health deteriorated, and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen. After the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth was viewed as the matriarch of the British royal family. In her later years, she was a consistently popular member of the family, even at times when other royals were suffering from low levels of public approval.[5] She continued an active public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter, Princess Margaret. Early life Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis (later the 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne in the Peerage of Scotland), and his wife, Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck. Her mother was descended from British Prime Minister William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, and Governor-General of India Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who was the elder brother of another prime minister, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.[c] Elizabeth in 1909 The location of Elizabeth's birth remains uncertain, but reputedly she was born either in her parents' Westminster home at Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor Gardens, or in a horse-drawn ambulance on the way to a hospital.[8] Other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott.[9] Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire,[10] near the Strathmores' English country house, St Paul's Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year.[11] She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the local parish church, All Saints. Elizabeth spent much of her childhood at St Paul's Walden and at Glamis Castle, the Earl's ancestral home in Scotland. She was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs.[12] When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophon's Anabasis. Her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to private education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler, she passed the Oxford Local Examination with distinction at age thirteen.[13] At a charity sale event in 1915 On Elizabeth's fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany. Four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915. Another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917.[14] Three weeks later, the family discovered he had been captured after being wounded. He remained in a prisoner of war camp for the rest of the war. Glamis was turned into a convalescent home for wounded soldiers, which Elizabeth helped to run. She was particularly instrumental in organising the rescue of the castle's contents during a serious fire on 16 September 1916.[15] One of the soldiers she treated wrote in her autograph book that she was to be "Hung, drawn, & quartered ... Hung in diamonds, drawn in a coach and four, and quartered in the best house in the land."[16] On 5 November 1916, she was confirmed at St John's Scottish Episcopal Church in Forfar.[17] Marriage Main article: Wedding of Prince Albert, Duke of York, and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Elizabeth and Albert on their wedding day, 26 April 1923 Prince Albert, Duke of York—"Bertie" to the family—was the second son of King George V. He initially proposed to Elizabeth in 1921, but she turned him down, being "afraid never, never again to be free to think, speak and act as I feel I really ought to".[18] When he declared he would marry no other, his mother, Queen Mary, visited Glamis to see for herself the girl who had stolen her son's heart. She became convinced that Elizabeth was "the one girl who could make Bertie happy", but nevertheless refused to interfere.[19] At the same time, Elizabeth was courted by James Stuart, Albert's equerry, until he left the Prince's service for a better-paid job in the American oil business.[20] In February 1922, Elizabeth was a bridesmaid at the wedding of Albert's sister, Princess Mary, to Viscount Lascelles.[21] The following month, Albert proposed again, but she refused him once more.[22] Eventually in January 1923, Elizabeth agreed to marry Albert, despite her misgivings about royal life.[23] Albert's freedom in choosing Elizabeth, not a member of a royal family, though the daughter of a peer, was considered a gesture in favour of political modernisation; previously, princes were expected to marry princesses from other royal families.[24] They selected a platinum engagement ring featuring a Kashmir sapphire with two diamonds adorning its sides.[25] They married on 26 April 1923, at Westminster Abbey. Unexpectedly,[26] Elizabeth laid her bouquet at the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior on her way into the abbey,[27] in memory of her brother Fergus.[28] Elizabeth became styled Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York.[29] Following a wedding breakfast at Buckingham Palace prepared by chef Gabriel Tschumi, the new Duchess and her husband honeymooned at Polesden Lacey, a manor house in Surrey owned by the wealthy socialite and friend Margaret Greville. They then went to Scotland, where she caught "unromantic" whooping cough.[30] Duchess of York (1923–1936) Portrait by Philip de László, 1925 After a successful royal visit to Northern Ireland in July 1924, the Labour government agreed that Albert and Elizabeth could tour East Africa from December 1924 to April 1925.[31] The Labour government was defeated by the Conservatives in a general election in November (which Elizabeth described as "marvellous" to her mother)[32] and the Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Sir Lee Stack, was assassinated three weeks later. Despite this, the tour went ahead, and they visited Aden, Kenya, Uganda, and Sudan, but Egypt was avoided because of political tensions.[33] In Queensland, 1927 Albert had a stammer, which affected his ability to deliver speeches, and after October 1925, Elizabeth assisted in helping him through the therapy devised by Lionel Logue, an episode portrayed in the 2010 film The King's Speech. In 1926, the couple had their first child, Princess Elizabeth—"Lilibet" to the family—who would later become Queen Elizabeth II. Albert and Elizabeth, without their child, travelled to Australia to open Parliament House in Canberra in 1927.[34] She was, in her own words, "very miserable at leaving the baby".[35] Their journey by sea took them via Jamaica, the Panama Canal and the Pacific; Elizabeth fretted constantly over her baby back in Britain, but their journey was a public relations success.[36] She charmed the public in Fiji when, as she was shaking hands with a long line of official guests, a stray dog walked in on the ceremony; she shook its paw as well.[37] In New Zealand she fell ill with a cold and missed some engagements, but enjoyed the local fishing[38] in the Bay of Islands accompanied by Australian sports fisherman Harry Andreas.[39] On the return journey, via Mauritius, the Suez Canal, Malta and Gibraltar, their transport, HMS Renown, caught fire and they prepared to abandon ship before the fire was brought under control.[40] The couple's second daughter, Princess Margaret, was born at Glamis Castle in 1930.[41] The close family lived at 145 Piccadilly.[42] Queen consort (1936–1952) On 20 January 1936, George V died and his eldest son, Edward, Prince of Wales, became King Edward VIII. Just months into Edward's reign, his decision to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson caused a constitutional crisis that resulted in his abdication. Elizabeth's husband Albert, reluctantly became King in his brother's place on 11 December 1936 under the regnal name of George VI. George VI and Elizabeth were crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor and Empress of India in Westminster Abbey on 12 May 1937, the date previously scheduled for Edward VIII. Elizabeth's crown was made of platinum and was set with the Koh-i-Noor diamond.[43] Edward and Simpson married and became the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, but while Edward was a Royal Highness, George VI withheld the style from the Duchess, a decision that Elizabeth supported.[44] Elizabeth was later quoted as referring to the Duchess as "that woman",[45] and the Duchess referred to Elizabeth as "Cookie", because of her supposed resemblance to a fat Scots cook.[5] Claims that Elizabeth remained embittered towards the Duchess were denied by her close friends; the Duke of Grafton wrote that she "never said anything nasty about the Duchess of Windsor, except to say she really hadn't got a clue what she was dealing with".[46] Overseas visits Portrait by Sir Gerald Kelly. Her crown is on the left. In summer 1938, a state visit to France by the King and Queen was postponed for three weeks because of the death of the Queen's mother, Lady Strathmore. In two weeks, Norman Hartnell created an all-white trousseau for the Queen, who could not wear colours as she was still in mourning.[47] The visit was designed to bolster Anglo-French solidarity in the face of aggression from Nazi Germany.[48] The French press praised the demeanour and charm of the royal couple during the delayed but successful visit, augmented by Hartnell's wardrobe.[49] Nevertheless, Nazi aggression continued, and the government prepared for war. After the Munich Agreement of 1938 appeared to forestall the advent of armed conflict, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was invited onto the balcony of Buckingham Palace with the King and Queen to receive acclamation from a crowd of well-wishers.[50] While broadly popular among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian John Grigg to describe the King's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century".[51] However, historians argue that the King only ever followed ministerial advice and acted as he was constitutionally bound to do.[52] King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at Toronto City Hall, 1939 In May and June 1939, Elizabeth and her husband toured Canada from coast to coast and back, the first time a reigning monarch had toured Canada.[53] They also visited the United States, spending time with President Roosevelt at the White House and his Hudson Valley estate.[54][55][56][57] U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt said that Elizabeth was "perfect as a Queen, gracious, informed, saying the right thing & kind but a little self-consciously regal".[58] The tour was designed to bolster trans-Atlantic support in the event of war, and to affirm Canada's status as an independent kingdom sharing with Britain the same person as monarch.[59][60][61][62] According to an often-told story, during one of the earliest of the royal couple's repeated encounters with the crowds, a Boer War veteran asked Elizabeth, "Are you Scots or are you English?" She replied, "I am a Canadian!"[63] Their reception by the Canadian and U.S. public was extremely enthusiastic,[64] and largely dissipated any residual feeling that George and Elizabeth were a lesser substitute for Edward.[65] Elizabeth told Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, "that tour made us",[66] and she returned to Canada frequently both on official tours and privately.[67] Second World War Eleanor Roosevelt (centre), King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in London, 23 October 1942 During the Second World War, the King and Queen became symbols of the fight against fascism.[68] Shortly after the declaration of war, The Queen's Book of the Red Cross was conceived. Fifty authors and artists contributed to the book, which was fronted by Cecil Beaton's portrait of the Queen and was sold in aid of the Red Cross.[69] She also broadcast to the nation in an attempt to comfort families during the evacuation of children and the mobilisation of fighting-age men.[70] Elizabeth publicly refused to leave London or send the children to Canada, even during the Blitz, when she was advised by the Cabinet to do so. She declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave the King. And the King will never leave."[71] Elizabeth visited troops, hospitals, factories, and parts of Britain that were targeted by the German Luftwaffe, in particular the East End near London's docks. Her visits initially provoked hostility; rubbish was thrown at her and the crowds jeered, in part because she wore expensive clothes that served to alienate her from people suffering the deprivations of war.[5] She explained that if the public came to see her they would wear their best clothes, so she should reciprocate in kind; Norman Hartnell dressed her in gentle colours and avoided black to represent "the rainbow of hope".[72] When Buckingham Palace itself took several hits during the height of the bombing, Elizabeth said, "I'm glad we've been bombed. It makes me feel I can look the East End in the face."[73] The Queen and Princess Elizabeth talk to paratroopers preparing for D-Day, 19 May 1944 Though the King and Queen spent the working day at Buckingham Palace, partly for security and family reasons they stayed at night at Windsor Castle about 20 miles (32 km) west of central London with the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. The Palace had lost much of its staff to the army, and most of the rooms were shut.[74] The windows were shattered by bomb blasts, and had to be boarded up.[75] During the "Phoney War" the Queen was given revolver training because of fears of imminent invasion.[76] Adolf Hitler is said to have called her "the most dangerous woman in Europe" because he viewed her popularity as a threat to German interests.[77] However, before the war both she and her husband, like most of Parliament and the British public, had supported appeasement and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, believing after the experience of the First World War that war had to be avoided at all costs. After the resignation of Chamberlain, the King asked Winston Churchill to form a government. Although the King was initially suspicious of Churchill's character and motives, in due course both the King and Queen came to respect and admire him.[78][79] Post-war years In the 1945 British general election, Churchill's Conservative Party was soundly defeated by the Labour Party of Clement Attlee. Elizabeth's political views were rarely disclosed,[80] but a letter she wrote in 1947 described Attlee's "high hopes of a socialist heaven on earth" as fading and presumably describes those who voted for him as "poor people, so many half-educated and bemused. I do love them."[81] Woodrow Wyatt thought her "much more pro-Conservative" than other members of the royal family,[82] but she later told him, "I like the dear old Labour Party."[83] She also told the Duchess of Grafton, "I love communists."[84] Southern Rhodesian stamp celebrating the 1947 royal tour of Southern Africa During the 1947 royal tour of South Africa, Elizabeth's serene public behaviour was broken, exceptionally, when she rose from the royal car to strike an admirer with her umbrella because she had mistaken his enthusiasm for hostility.[85] The 1948 royal tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed because of the King's declining health. In March 1949, he had a successful operation to improve the circulation in his right leg.[86] In summer 1951, Elizabeth and her daughters fulfilled the King's public engagements in his place. In September, he was diagnosed with lung cancer.[87] After a lung resection, he appeared to recover, but the delayed trip to Australia and New Zealand was altered so that Princess Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, went in the King and Queen's place, in January 1952.[88] George VI died in his sleep on 6 February 1952 while Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh were in Kenya on a Commonwealth tour, and with George's death his daughter immediately became Queen Elizabeth II.[89] Queen mother (1952–2002) Widowhood As guest of honor at the Columbia University Bicentennial in New York City, October 1954 Shortly after George VI's death, Elizabeth began to be styled as Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother because the normal style for the widow of a king, "Queen Elizabeth", would have been too similar to the style of her elder daughter, Queen Elizabeth II.[90] Popularly, she became the "Queen Mother" or the "Queen Mum".[91] She was devastated by her husband's death and retired to Scotland. However, after a meeting with the prime minister, Winston Churchill, she broke her retirement and resumed her public duties.[92] Eventually she became just as busy as queen mother as she had been as queen consort. In July 1953, she undertook her first overseas visit since the funeral when she visited the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland with Princess Margaret. She laid the foundation stone of the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland—the current University of Zimbabwe.[93] Upon her return to the region in 1957, Elizabeth was inaugurated as the college's president, and attended other events that were deliberately designed to be multi-racial.[94] During her daughter's extensive tour of the Commonwealth over 1953–54, Elizabeth acted as a counsellor of state and looked after her grandchildren, Charles and Anne.[95] In February 1959, she visited Kenya and Uganda.[96][97] The Queen Mother arriving at Walker Naval Yard, June 1961 Elizabeth oversaw the restoration of the remote Castle of Mey, on the north coast of Scotland, which she used to "get away from everything"[98] for three weeks in August and ten days in October each year.[99] She developed her interest in horse racing, particularly steeplechasing, which had been inspired by the amateur jockey Lord Mildmay in 1949.[100] She owned the winners of approximately 500 races. Her distinctive colours of blue with buff stripes were carried by horses such as Special Cargo, the winner of the 1984 Whitbread Gold Cup, and Devon Loch, which spectacularly halted just short of the winning post at the 1956 Grand National[101] and whose jockey Dick Francis later had a successful career as the writer of racing-themed detective stories. Peter Cazalet was her trainer for over 20 years. Although (contrary to rumour) she never placed bets, she did have the racing commentaries piped direct to her London residence, Clarence House, so she could follow the races.[102] As an art collector, she purchased works by Claude Monet, Augustus John and Peter Carl Fabergé, among others.[103] In February 1964, Elizabeth had an emergency appendectomy, which led to the postponement of a planned tour of Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji until 1966.[104] She recuperated during a Caribbean cruise aboard the royal yacht, Britannia.[105] In December 1966, she underwent an operation to remove a tumour, after she was diagnosed with colon cancer. Contrary to rumours which subsequently spread, she did not have a colostomy.[106][107] She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1984 and a lump was removed from her breast. Her bouts with cancer were never made public during her lifetime.[108] At Dover Castle, portrait by Allan Warren During her widowhood she continued to travel extensively, including on over forty official visits overseas.[109] In 1975, Elizabeth visited Iran at the invitation of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The British ambassador and his wife, Anthony and Sheila Parsons, noted how the Iranians were bemused by her habit of speaking to everyone regardless of status or importance, and hoped the Shah's entourage would learn from the visit to pay more attention to ordinary people.[110] Between 1976 and 1984, she made annual summer visits to France,[111] which were among 22 private trips to continental Europe between 1963 and 1992.[112] In 1982, Elizabeth was rushed to hospital when a fish bone became stuck in her throat, and had an operation to remove it. Being a keen angler, she calmly joked afterwards, "The salmon have got their own back."[113] Similar incidents occurred at Balmoral in August 1986, when she was hospitalised at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary overnight but no operation was needed,[114] and in May 1993, when she was admitted to the Infirmary for surgery under general anaesthetic.[115] In 1987, Elizabeth was criticised when it emerged that two of her nieces, Katherine and Nerissa Bowes-Lyon, had both been committed to the Royal Earlswood Asylum for Mental Defectives, a psychiatric hospital in Redhill, Surrey in 1941, because they had severe learning disabilities.[116] However, Burke's Peerage had listed the sisters as dead, apparently because their mother, Fenella (Elizabeth's sister-in-law), "was 'extremely vague' when it came to filling in forms and might not have completed the paperwork for the family entry correctly".[117] When Nerissa died in 1986, her grave was originally marked with a plastic tag and a serial number. Elizabeth said that the news of their institutionalisation came as a surprise to her.[118] Centenarian At Banting House during a royal visit to Canada, 1989 In her later years, Elizabeth became known for her longevity. Her 90th birthday—4 August 1990—was celebrated by a parade on 27 June that involved many of the 300 organisations of which she was a patron.[119] In 1995, she attended events commemorating the end of the war fifty years before, and had two operations: one to remove a cataract in her left eye, and one to replace her right hip.[120] In 1998, her left hip was replaced after it was broken when she slipped and fell during a visit to Sandringham stables.[121] Elizabeth's 100th birthday was celebrated in a number of ways: a parade that celebrated the highlights of her life included contributions from Sir Norman Wisdom and Sir John Mills;[122] her image appeared on a special commemorative £20 note issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland;[123] and she attended a lunch at the Guildhall, London, at which George Carey, the Archbishop of Canterbury, accidentally attempted to drink her glass of wine. Her quick admonition of "That's mine!" caused widespread amusement.[124] In November 2000, she broke her collarbone in a fall that kept her recuperating at home over Christmas and the New Year.[125] On 1 August 2001, Elizabeth had a blood transfusion for anaemia after suffering from mild heat exhaustion, though she was well enough to make her traditional appearance outside Clarence House three days later to celebrate her 101st birthday.[126][127] Her final public engagements included planting a cross at the Field of Remembrance on 8 November 2001;[128] a reception at the Guildhall, London, for the reformation of the 600 Squadron, Royal Auxiliary Air Force on 15 November;[129] and attending the re-commissioning of HMS Ark Royal on 22 November.[130][131][132] In December 2001, aged 101, Elizabeth fractured her pelvis in a fall. Even so, she insisted on standing for the national anthem during the memorial service for her husband on 6 February the following year.[133] Just three days later, their second daughter Princess Margaret died. On 13 February 2002, Elizabeth fell and cut her arm in her sitting room at Sandringham House; an ambulance and doctor were called, and the wound was dressed.[134] She was still determined to attend Margaret's funeral at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, two days later on the Friday of that week,[135] even though the Queen and the rest of the royal family were concerned about the journey the Queen Mother would face to get from Norfolk to Windsor;[136] she was also rumoured to be hardly eating. Nevertheless, she flew to Windsor by helicopter, and so that no photographs of her in a wheelchair (which she hated being seen in) could be taken—she insisted that she be shielded from the press[136]—she travelled to the service in a people carrier with blacked-out windows,[137][138] which had been previously used by Margaret.[136][139] On 5 March 2002, Elizabeth was present at the luncheon of the annual lawn party of the Eton Beagles, and watched the Cheltenham Races on television; however, her health began to deteriorate precipitously during her last weeks, after retreating to Royal Lodge for the final time.[140] Death Main article: Death and funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother The Queen Mother's funeral carriage. The coffin was draped with her personal standard, shown below. On 30 March 2002, at 15:15 GMT, Elizabeth died at the Royal Lodge, Windsor, at the age of 101, with her surviving daughter Queen Elizabeth II by her side.[132] She had been suffering from a chest cold since Christmas 2001.[134] At 101 years and 238 days old she was the first member of the British royal family to live past the age of 100. She was the longest-living member of the British royal family at the time of her death. Her surviving sister-in-law, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester,[141] exceeded that, dying at the age of 102 on 29 October 2004.[142] She was one of the longest-lived members of any royal family.[143] Elizabeth grew camellias in every one of her gardens, and before her flag-draped coffin was taken from Windsor to lie in state at Westminster Hall, an arrangement of camellias from her own gardens was placed on top.[144] An estimated 200,000 people over three days filed past as she lay in state in Westminster Hall at the Palace of Westminster.[145] Members of the household cavalry and other branches of the armed forces stood guard at the four corners of the catafalque. At one point, her four grandsons Prince Charles, Prince Andrew, Prince Edward and Viscount Linley mounted the guard as a mark of respect—an honour similar to the Vigil of the Princes at the lying in state of King George V.[146][147] On the day of her funeral, 9 April, the Governor General of Canada issued a proclamation asking Canadians to honour Elizabeth's memory that day.[148] In Australia, the Governor-General read the lesson at a memorial service held in St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.[149] In London, more than a million people filled the area outside Westminster Abbey and along the 23-mile (37 km) route from central London to Elizabeth's final resting place in the King George VI Memorial Chapel beside her husband and younger daughter in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.[150] At her request, after her funeral the wreath that had lain atop her coffin was placed on the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior, in a gesture that echoed her wedding-day tribute 79 years before.[151] Legacy Known for her personal and public charm,[18] Elizabeth was one of the most popular members of the royal family,[152] and helped to stabilise the popularity of the monarchy as a whole.[153][154] Elizabeth's critics included Kitty Kelley, who falsely alleged that she did not abide by the rationing regulations during the Second World War.[155][156] This, however, was contradicted by the official records,[157][158] and Eleanor Roosevelt during her wartime stay at Buckingham Palace reported expressly on the rationed food served in the Palace and the limited bathwater that was permitted.[159][160] Claims that Elizabeth used racist slurs to refer to black people[155] were strongly denied by Major Colin Burgess,[161] the husband of Elizabeth Burgess, a mixed-race secretary who accused members of Prince Charles's Household of racial abuse.[162] Elizabeth made no public comments on race, but according to Robert Rhodes James in private she "abhorred racial discrimination" and decried apartheid as "dreadful".[163] Woodrow Wyatt records in his diary that when he expressed the view that non-white countries have nothing in common with "us", she told him, "I am very keen on the Commonwealth. They're all like us."[164] However, she did distrust Germans; she told Woodrow Wyatt, "Never trust them, never trust them."[165] While she may have held such views, it has been argued that they were normal for British people of her generation and upbringing, who had experienced two vicious wars with Germany.[166] The King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Memorial: A bronze statue of Elizabeth on The Mall, London, overlooked by the statue of her husband George VI In his official biography, William Shawcross portrays Elizabeth as a person whose indomitable optimism, zest for life, good manners, mischievous sense of humour, and interest in people and subjects of all kinds contributed to her exceptional popularity and to her longevity. Sir Hugh Casson said Elizabeth was like "a wave breaking on a rock, because although she is sweet and pretty and charming, she also has a basic streak of toughness and tenacity. ... when a wave breaks on a rock, it showers and sparkles with a brilliant play of foam and droplets in the sun, yet beneath is really hard, tough rock, fused, in her case, from strong principles, physical courage and a sense of duty."[167] Sir Peter Ustinov described her during a student demonstration at the University of Dundee in 1968:     As we arrived in a solemn procession the students pelted us with toilet rolls. They kept hold of one end, like streamers at a ball, and threw the other end. The Queen Mother stopped and picked these up as though somebody had misplaced them. [Returning them to the students she said,] 'Was this yours? Oh, could you take it?' And it was her sang-froid and her absolute refusal to be shocked by this, which immediately silenced all the students. She knows instinctively what to do on those occasions. She doesn't rise to being heckled at all; she just pretends it must be an oversight on the part of the people doing it. The way she reacted not only showed her presence of mind, but was so charming and so disarming, even to the most rabid element, that she brought peace to troubled waters.[168] Elizabeth was well known for her dry witticisms. On hearing that Edwina Mountbatten was buried at sea, she said: "Dear Edwina, she always liked to make a splash."[113] Accompanied by the gay writer Sir Noël Coward at a gala, she mounted a staircase lined with guards. Noticing Coward's eyes flicker momentarily across the soldiers, she murmured to him: "I wouldn't if I were you, Noël; they count them before they put them out."[169] After being advised by a Conservative minister in the 1970s not to employ homosexuals, Elizabeth observed that without them, "we'd have to go self-service".[169] On the fate of a gift of a nebuchadnezzar of champagne (20 bottles' worth) even if her family did not come for the holidays, she said, "I'll polish it off myself."[170] Emine Saner of The Guardian suggests that with a gin and Dubonnet at noon, red wine with lunch, a port and martini at 6 pm and two glasses of champagne at dinner, "a conservative estimate puts the number of alcohol units she drank at 70 a week".[171] Her lifestyle amused journalists, particularly when it was revealed she had a multi-million pound overdraft with Coutts Bank.[172] Elizabeth's habits were parodied by the satirical 1980s television programme Spitting Image.[173] This was the first satirical depiction on television; the makers initially demurred from featuring her, fearing that it would be considered off-limits by most of the viewing public.[174] In the end, she was portrayed as a perpetually tipsy Beryl Reid soundalike.[175] She was portrayed by Juliet Aubrey in Bertie and Elizabeth, Sylvia Syms in The Queen, Natalie Dormer in W.E., Olivia Colman in Hyde Park on Hudson, Victoria Hamilton (Seasons 1 and 2), Marion Bailey (Seasons 3 and 4) and Marcia Warren (Season 5)[176] in The Crown and in The King's Speech by Helena Bonham Carter, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her portrayal.[177][178] The Queen Elizabeth Way Monument in Toronto, with a bas-relief of Queen Elizabeth and King George VI The Cunard White Star Line's RMS Queen Elizabeth was named after her. She launched the ship on 27 September 1938 in Clydebank, Scotland. Supposedly, the liner started to slide into the water before Elizabeth could officially launch her, and acting sharply, she managed to smash a bottle of Australian red over the liner's bow just before it slid out of reach.[179] In 1954, Elizabeth sailed to New York on her namesake.[180] A statue of Elizabeth by sculptor Philip Jackson was unveiled in front of the George VI Memorial, off The Mall, London, on 24 February 2009, creating the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Memorial.[181] In March 2011, Elizabeth's eclectic musical taste was revealed when details of her small record collection kept at the Castle of Mey were made public. Her records included ska, local folk, Scottish reels and the musicals Oklahoma! and The King and I, and artists such as yodeller Montana Slim, Tony Hancock, The Goons and Noël Coward.[182] Eight years before her death, Elizabeth had reportedly placed two-thirds of her money (an estimated £19 million)[183] into trusts, for the benefit of her great-grandchildren.[184] In her lifetime, she received £643,000 a year from the Civil List, and spent an estimated £1–2 million annually to run her household.[185] By the end of the 1990s, her overdraft was said to be around £4 million.[183][185] She left the bulk of her estate, estimated to be worth between £50 and £70 million, including paintings, Fabergé eggs, jewellery, and horses, to her surviving daughter, Queen Elizabeth II.[184][186] Under an agreement reached in 1993,[187] property passing from monarch to monarch is exempt from inheritance tax, as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the current monarch, so a tax liability estimated at £28 million (40 percent of the value of the estate) was not incurred.[188] The most important pieces of art were transferred to the Royal Collection by Elizabeth II.[184] Following her death, the Queen successfully applied to the High Court so that details of her mother's will would be kept secret.[189] This brought criticism from the Labour Party politicians and segments of the public, and the Queen eventually released the outlines of her mother's will.[186] Arms Elizabeth's coat of arms was the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom (in either the English or the Scottish version) impaled with the canting arms of her father, the Earl of Strathmore; the latter being: 1st and 4th quarters, Argent, a lion rampant Azure, armed and langued Gules, within a double tressure flory-counter-flory of the second (Lyon); 2nd and 3rd quarters, Ermine, three bows stringed paleways proper (Bowes).[190] The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown, and supported by the crowned lion of England and a lion rampant per fess Or and Gules.[191] Coat of Arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon as Duchess of York.svg      Coat of Arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon.svg      Coat of arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (Scotland) (2).svg Coat of arms of Elizabeth, Duchess of York (1923–1936)     Coat of arms of Queen Elizabeth     Coat of arms of Queen Elizabeth (Scotland) Issue Name     Birth     Death     Marriage     Their children     Their grandchildren Date     Spouse Elizabeth II     21 April 1926     8 September 2022     20 November 1947     Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh     Charles III     William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex Anne, Princess Royal     Peter Phillips Zara Tindall Prince Andrew, Duke of York     Princess Beatrice Princess Eugenie Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar     Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn Princess Margaret     21 August 1930     9 February 2002     6 May 1960 Divorced 11 July 1978     Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon     David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon     Charles Armstrong-Jones, Viscount Linley Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones Lady Sarah Chatto     Samuel Chatto Arthur Chatto Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother[192] See also     List of titles and honours of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother     List of covers of Time magazine (1930s) Notes From the accession of her husband to the abolition of British India by the Indian Independence Act 1947. The title was abandoned on 22 June 1948. The hyphenated version of the surname was used in official documents at the time of her marriage, but the family itself tends to omit the hyphen.[1]     Lady Colin Campbell claims Elizabeth's biological mother was the family cook, Marguerite Rodiere, by means of a surrogacy arrangement that was not uncommon in aristocratic families at the time. This theory is dismissed by royal biographers such as Michael Thornton and Hugo Vickers.[6] In an earlier allegation, published by Kitty Kelley in 1997, Elizabeth's mother is said to have been a Welsh maid.[7] References Shawcross, p. 8 "No. 55932". The London Gazette (Supplement). 4 August 2000. p. 8617. "No. 56653". The London Gazette (Supplement). 5 August 2002. p. 1. "No. 56969". The London Gazette. 16 June 2003. p. 7439. Roberts, pp. 58–59 British Screen News (1930), Our Smiling Duchess, London: British Screen Productions Moore, Lucy (31 March 2002), "A wicked twinkle and a streak of steel", The Guardian, retrieved 1 May 2009 "Queen Mother was daughter of French cook, biography claims", The Telegraph, 31 March 2012, archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Beck, Joan (5 October 1997), "Royal Muck: $27 Down The Drain", Chicago Tribune, retrieved 16 February 2017 Weir, Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy, Revised edition, London: Pimlico, p. 330, ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5 Shawcross, p. 15 Civil Registration Indexes: Births, General Register Office, England and Wales. Jul–Sep 1900 Hitchin, vol. 3a, p. 667 1901 England Census, Class RG13, piece 1300, folio 170, p. 5 Vickers, p. 8 Vickers, pp. 10–14 Shawcross, p. 85 Shawcross, pp. 79–80 Forbes 1999, p. 74. "The Earl and Countess of Forfar visit Forfar". royal.gov.uk. 1 July 2019. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021. Ezard, John (1 April 2002), "A life of legend, duty and devotion", The Guardian, p. 18 Airlie, Mabell (1962), Thatched with Gold, London: Hutchinson, p. 167 Shawcross, pp. 133–135 Shawcross, pp. 135–136 Shawcross, p. 136 Longford, p. 23 Roberts, pp. 57–58; Shawcross, p. 113 Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon's Engagement Ring, Vintage Royal Wedding, archived from the original on 31 October 2013, retrieved 13 April 2014 Shawcross, p. 177 Vickers, p. 64 Rayment, Sean (1 May 2011), "Royal wedding: Kate Middleton's bridal bouquet placed at Grave of Unknown Warrior", The Telegraph, archived from the original on 10 January 2022, retrieved 20 August 2012 Shawcross, p. 168 Letter from Albert to Queen Mary, 25 May 1923, quoted in Shawcross, p. 185. Shawcross, pp. 218–219 Letter from Elizabeth to Lady Strathmore, 1 November 1924, quoted in Shawcross, p. 217 Shawcross, pp. 221–240 t-lived Royal in history", BBC News, retrieved 30 June 2017 Alderson, Andrew (31 October 2004), "Princess Alice, the oldest ever royal, dies at 102", The Telegraph, archived from the original on 10 January 2022, retrieved 30 June 2017 Coke, Hope (21 April 2021). "The top 10 longest-living royals in history". Tatler. Retrieved 4 August 2021. Bates, Stephen (3 April 2002), "Piper's farewell for Queen Mother", The Guardian, retrieved 1 May 2009 Lying-in-state, UK Parliament, retrieved 29 June 2017 Bates, Stephen (9 April 2002), "Grandsons hold vigil as public files past", The Guardian, retrieved 29 June 2017 "Charles returns for second tribute", BBC News, 9 April 2002, retrieved 29 June 2017 Government of Canada Publications (4 April 2002), "Proclamation Requesting that the People of Canada Set Aside April 9, 2002, as the Day on Which They Honour the Memory of Our Dearly Beloved Mother, Her Late Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, Who Passed Away on March 30, 2002" (PDF), Canada Gazette Part II Extra, 136 (5), archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2013, retrieved 16 February 2017 Memorial Service for HM Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother, Sydney Anglicans, 9 April 2002, retrieved 2 March 2011 Queues at Queen Mother vault, CNN, 10 April 2002, retrieved 1 May 2009 Mourners visit Queen Mother's vault, BBC, 10 April 2002, retrieved 1 May 2009 Monarchy/Royal Family Trends – Most Liked Members of the Royal Family, Ipsos MORI, 19 November 2012, retrieved 9 May 2015 Goldman, Lawrence (May 2006) "Elizabeth (1900–2002)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/76927, retrieved 1 May 2009 (Subscription required) Shawcross, p. 942 Kelley, Kitty (1977), The Royals, New York: Time Warner Picknett, Lynn; Prince, Clive; Prior, Stephen; Brydon, Robert (2002), War of the Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy, Mainstream Publishing, p. 161, ISBN 978-1-84018-631-4 The memoirs of the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Woolton C.H., P.C., D.L., LL.D. (1959) London: Cassell Roberts, p. 67 Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1995), No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 380 Shawcross, pp. 556–557 Burgess, Major Colin (2006), Behind Palace Doors: My Service as the Queen Mother's Equerry, John Blake Publishing, p. 233 Royal secretary loses race bias case, BBC, 7 December 2001, retrieved 1 May 2009 Notes and references 1. "No. 38330". The London Gazette. 22 June 1948. p. 3647.     vte British royal consorts     George of Denmark and Norway (1707–1708) Caroline of Ansbach (1727–1737) Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1761–1818) Caroline of Brunswick (1820–1821) Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (1830–1837) Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1840–1861) Alexandra of Denmark (1901–1910) Mary of Teck (1910–1936) Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (1936–1952) Philip of Greece and Denmark (1952–2021) Camilla Shand (2022–present)     vte Duchesses of York     Infanta Isabella of Castile (1372–1392) Lady Joan Holland (1393–1402) Philippa de Mohun (1402–1415) Lady Cecily Neville (1425–1460) Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk (1478–1481) Anne Hyde (1660–1671) Princess Mary of Modena (1673–1685) Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (1791–1820) Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (1893–1910) Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (1923–1936) Sarah Ferguson (1986–1996)     vte British princesses by marriage 1st generation        Princess Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach 2nd generation        Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 3rd generation        Maria Walpole Anne Luttrell 4th generation        Duchess Caroline of Brunswick Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Duchess Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel The Princess Mary* 5th generation        Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg 6th generation        Princess Alexandra of Denmark Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia Princess Helen of Waldeck and Pyrmont Princess Thyra of Denmark 7th generation        Princess Victoria Mary of Teck Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife* Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia 8th generation        Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark 9th generation        Birgitte van Deurs Henriksen Katharine Worsley Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz 10th generation        Lady Diana Spencer Camilla Shand Sarah Ferguson Sophie Rhys-Jones 11th generation        Catherine Middleton Meghan Markle *also a British princess in her own right     vte Members of the Order of New Zealand Current    Ordinary members        Kiri Te Kanawa Jim Bolger Thomas Williams Jonathan Hunt Lloyd Geering Kenneth Keith Don McKinnon Helen Clark Bob Charles Albert Wendt Ron Carter Peter Gluckman Richie McCaw Joy Cowley Mason Durie Anne Salmond Additional members        Michael Duffy C. 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Elizabeth II Head of the Commonwealth Formal photograph of Elizabeth facing right Formal photograph, 1958 Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms (list) Reign    6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022 Coronation    2 June 1953 Predecessor    George VI Successor    Charles III Born    Princess Elizabeth of York 21 April 1926 Mayfair, London, England Died    8 September 2022 (aged 96) Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire, Scotland Burial    19 September 2022 King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Spouse    Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh ​ ​(m. 1947; died 2021)​ Issue Detail    Charles III Anne, Princess Royal Prince Andrew, Duke of York Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar Names Elizabeth Alexandra Mary House    Windsor Father    George VI Mother    Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Signature    Elizabeth's signature in black ink Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime and 15 at the time of her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history. Elizabeth was born in Mayfair, London, as the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, making then-Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a former prince of Greece and Denmark, and their marriage lasted 73 years until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward. When her father died in February 1952, Elizabeth—then 25 years old—became queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka), as well as Head of the Commonwealth. Elizabeth reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political changes such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the United Kingdom, the decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom's accession to the European Communities and withdrawal from the European Union. The number of her realms varied over time as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was served by more than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many historic visits and meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to Russia in 1994, and to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings with five popes. Significant events included Elizabeth's coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees in 1977, 2002, 2012, and 2022, respectively. Although she faced occasional republican sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the breakdowns of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992, and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of Wales—support for the monarchy in the United Kingdom remained consistently high throughout her lifetime, as did her personal popularity.[1] Elizabeth died in September 2022 at Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire, at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest child, King Charles III. Her state funeral was the first to be held in the United Kingdom since that of Winston Churchill in 1965. Early life Elizabeth as a thoughtful-looking toddler with curly, fair hair On the cover of Time, April 1929 Elizabeth as a rosy-cheeked young girl with blue eyes and fair hair Portrait by Philip de László, 1933 Princess Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926,[2] during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. Princess Elizabeth was delivered by Caesarean section at 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair, which was her grandfather Lord Strathmore's London home.[3] She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[4][a] and named Elizabeth after her mother; Alexandra after her paternal great-grandmother, who had died six months earlier; and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[6] Called "Lilibet" by her close family,[7] based on what she called herself at first,[8] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, whom she affectionately called "Grandpa England",[9] and her regular visits during his serious illness in 1929 were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[10] Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford.[11] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature, and music.[12] Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family.[13] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[14] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[15] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[16] Heir presumptive During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British throne, behind her uncle Edward and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children of his own, who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession.[17] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[18] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, taking the regnal name George VI. Since Elizabeth had no brothers, she became heir presumptive. If her parents had subsequently borne a son, he would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession, which was determined by the male-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.[19] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[20] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[21] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age.[22] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[21] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when they had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought she was too young to undertake public tours.[23] She "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[24] They corresponded regularly,[24] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[23] Second World War In Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should be evacuated to Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombings of London by the Luftwaffe.[25] This was rejected by their mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[26] The princesses stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[27] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[28] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[29] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[30] She stated: "We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well."[30] In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[31] As she approached her 18th birthday, Parliament changed the law so she could act as one of five counsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[32] In February 1945, she was appointed an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number of 230873.[33] She trained and worked as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander (female equivalent of captain at the time) five months later.[34] Elizabeth (far left) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with her family and Winston Churchill, 8 May 1945 At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[35] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at war.[36] Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[37] In 1946, she was inducted into the Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[38] Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong."[39] The speech was written by Dermot Morrah, a journalist for The Times.[40] Marriage Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and again in 1937.[41] They were second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After meeting for the third time at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip, who was 18, and they began to exchange letters.[42] She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[43] The engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[44] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[45] Later biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the union initially, and teased Philip as "the Hun".[46] In later life, however, she told the biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[47] At Buckingham Palace with new husband Philip after their wedding, 1947 Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[48] Shortly before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[49] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[50] Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown (which was designed by Norman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war.[51] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[52] Neither was an invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII.[53] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[54] A second child, Princess Anne, was born on 15 August 1950.[55] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949,[50] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. Their two children remained in Britain.[56] Reign Accession and coronation Main article: Coronation of Elizabeth II Coronation portrait by Cecil Beaton, 1953 George VI's health declined during 1951, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case of the King's death while she was on tour.[57] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of George VI and Elizabeth's consequent accession to the throne with immediate effect. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[58] She chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name;[59] thus she was called Elizabeth II, which offended many Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in Scotland.[60] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[61] Elizabeth and Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.[62] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear the Duke of Edinburgh's name, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. Lord Mountbatten advocated the name House of Mountbatten. Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after his ducal title.[63] The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, so Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. Philip complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[64] In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[65] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of her private secretary, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[66] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[67] Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[68] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested before she died.[69] The coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[70][b] On Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation gown was embroidered with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries.[74] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Commonwealth realm § From the accession of Elizabeth II Elizabeth's realms (light red and pink) and their territories and protectorates (dark red) at the beginning of her reign in 1952 From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[75] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[76] In 1953, Elizabeth and her husband embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air.[77] She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[78] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[79] Throughout her reign, Elizabeth made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of state.[80] In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[81] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said Elizabeth was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[82] A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. With Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[83] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[84] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[85] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[86] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint the Earl of Home as the prime minister, advice she followed.[87] Elizabeth again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[87] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her involvement.[88] Seated with Philip on thrones at the Canadian parliament, 1957 In 1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[89] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[89][90] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[91] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[92] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[92] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[93] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; Elizabeth's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[94] Elizabeth gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, on 19 February 1960, which was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[95] Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born on 10 March 1964.[96] In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, Elizabeth also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[97] Acceleration of decolonisation In Queensland, Australia, 1970 With President Tito of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, 1972 The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth, declaring her "Queen of Rhodesia".[98] Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[99] As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.[100] Elizabeth toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country.[101] She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.[102] In February 1974, the British prime minister, Edward Heath, advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[103] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned as prime minister and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[104] A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[105] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the Governor-General.[106] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[105] Silver Jubilee Leaders of the G7 states, members of the royal family and Elizabeth (centre), London, 1977 In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband, Lord Snowdon.[107] In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena,[108] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".[109] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[110] According to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s Elizabeth was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister.[111] Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[111] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[111] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth "better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[111] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[111] Press scrutiny and Thatcher premiership Elizabeth in red uniform on a black horse Riding Burmese at the 1986 Trooping the Colour ceremony During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[112] Elizabeth's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[113] That October Elizabeth was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade, but missed.[114] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their son Prince William.[115] Elizabeth and Ronald Reagan on black horses. He bare-headed; she in a headscarf; both in tweeds, jodhpurs and riding boots. Riding at Windsor with President Reagan, June 1982 From April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son, Prince Andrew, served with British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt anxiety[116] and pride.[117] On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard.[118] After hosting US president Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[119] Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, pioneered by The Sun tabloid.[120] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[121] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[122] Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[123] Thatcher's biographer, John Campbell, claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[124] Reports of acrimony between them were exaggerated,[125] and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major.[126] Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[127][128] In 1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state visit to the People's Republic of China, becoming the first British monarch to visit the country.[129] The tour included the Forbidden City, the Great Wall of China, and the Terracotta Warriors.[130] At a state banquet, Elizabeth joked about the first British emissary to China being lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and remarked, "fortunately postal services have improved since 1602".[131] Elizabeth's visit also signified the acceptance of both countries that sovereignty over Hong Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.[132] By the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire.[133] The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed.[134] In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[127] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[135]  Soames, Emma (1 June 2012), "Emma Soames: As Churchills we're proud to do our duty", The Daily Telegraph, London, archived from the original on 2 June 2012, retrieved 12 March 2019  Bradford 2012, p. 80; Brandreth 2004, pp. 253–254; Lacey 2002, pp. 172–173; Pimlott 2001, pp. 183–185  "No. 41948", The London Gazette (Supplement), 5 February 1960, p. 1003  Brandreth 2004, pp. 269–271  Brandreth 2004, pp. 269–271; Lacey 2002, pp. 193–194; Pimlott 2001, pp. 201, 236–238  Bond 2006, p. 22; Brandreth 2004, p. 271; Lacey 2002, p. 194; Pimlott 2001, p. 238; Shawcross 2002, p. 146  Bradford 2012, p. 82  "50 facts about The Queen's Coronation", Royal Household, 25 May 2003, archived from the original on 7 February 2021, retrieved 18 April 2016  Pimlott 2001, p. 207  Briggs 1995, pp. 420 ff.; Pimlott 2001, p. 207; Roberts 2000, p. 82  Lacey 2002, p. 182  Lacey 2002, p. 190; Pimlott 2001, pp. 247–248  Marr 2011, p. 272  Pimlott 2001, p. 182  "The Commonwealth: Gifts to the Queen", Royal Collection Trust, archived from the original on 1 March 2016, retrieved 20 February 2016  "Australia: Royal visits", Royal Household, 13 October 2015, archived from the original on 1 February 2019, retrieved 18 April 2016; Vallance, Adam (22 December 2015), "New Zealand: Royal visits", The Royal Family, Royal Household, archived from the original on 22 March 2019, retrieved 18 April 2016; Marr 2011, p. 126  Brandreth 2004, p. 278; Marr 2011, p. 126; Pimlott 2001, p. 224; Shawcross 2002, p. 59  Campbell, Sophie (11 May 2012), "Queen's Diamond Jubilee: Sixty years of royal tours", The Daily Telegraph, archived from the original on 10 January 2022, retrieved 20 February 2016  Thomson, Mike (15 January 2007), "When Britain and France nearly married", BBC News, archived from the original on 23 January 2009, retrieved 14 December 2009  Pimlott 2001, p. 255; Roberts 2000, p. 84  Marr 2011, pp. 175–176; Pimlott 2001, pp. 256–260; Roberts 2000, p. 84  Lacey 2002, p. 199; Shawcross 2002, p. 75  Altrincham in National Review, quoted by Brandreth 2004, p. 374; Roberts 2000, p. 83  Brandreth 2004, p. 374; Pimlott 2001, pp. 280–281; Shawcross 2002, p. 76  Hardman 2011, p. 22; Pimlott 2001, pp. 324–335; Roberts 2000, p. 84  Roberts 2000, p. 84  "Queen and Canada: Royal visits", Royal Household, archived from the original on 4 May 2010, retrieved 12 February 2012  Bradford 2012, p. 114  Pimlott 2001, p. 303; Shawcross 2002, p. 83  Macmillan 1972, pp. 466–472  Speaight 1970;[page needed] Dubois, Paul (12 October 1964), "Demonstrations Mar Quebec Events Saturday", The Gazette, p. 1, archived from the original on 23 January 2021, retrieved 6 March 2010  Bousfield & Toffoli 2002, p. 139  "Royal Family tree and line of succession", BBC News, 4 September 2017, archived from the original on 11 March 2021, retrieved 13 May 2022  "No. 43268", The London Gazette, 11 March 1964, p. 2255  Hardman 2011, pp. 213–214  Williams, Kate (18 August 2019), "As The Crown returns, watch out for these milestones", The Guardian, archived from the original on 4 July 2021, retrieved 5 July 2021  Bond 2006, p. 66; Pimlott 2001, pp. 345–354  Bradford 2012, pp. 123, 154, 176; Pimlott 2001, pp. 301, 315–316, 415–417  Hoey 2022, p. 58  "Big Crowds in Belgrade Greet Queen Elizabeth", The New York Times, 18 October 1972, archived from the original on 6 June 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022  Bradford 2012, p. 181; Pimlott 2001, p. 418  Bradford 2012, p. 181; Marr 2011, p. 256; Pimlott 2001, p. 419; Shawcross 2002, pp. 109–110  Bond 2006, p. 96; Marr 2011, p. 257; Pimlott 2001, p. 427; Shawcross 2002, p. 110  Pimlott 2001, pp. 428–429  Pimlott 2001, p. 449  Hardman 2011, p. 137; Roberts 2000, pp. 88–89; Shawcross 2002, p. 178  Elizabeth to her staff, quoted in Shawcross 2002, p. 178  Pimlott 2001, pp. 336–337, 470–471; Roberts 2000, pp. 88–89  Heinricks, Geoff (29 September 2000), "Trudeau: A drawer monarchist", National Post, Toronto, p. B12  "Queen's 'fantasy assassin' jailed", BBC News, 14 September 1981, archived from the original on 28 July 2011, retrieved 21 June 2010  Lacey 2002, p. 281; Pimlott 2001, pp. 476–477; Shawcross 2002, p. 192  McNeilly, Hamish (1 March 2018), "Intelligence documents confirm assassination attempt on Queen Elizabeth in New Zealand", The Sydney Morning Herald, archived from the original on 26 June 2019, retrieved 1 March 2018  Ainge Roy, Eleanor (13 January 2018), "'Damn ... I missed': the incredible story of the day the Queen was nearly shot", The Guardian, archived from the original on 1 March 2018, retrieved 1 March 2018  Bond 2006, p. 115; Pimlott 2001, p. 487  Pimlott 2001, p. 487; Shawcross 2002, p. 127  Lacey 2002, pp. 297–298; Pimlott 2001, p. 491  Bond 2006, p. 188; Pimlott 2001, p. 497  Pimlott 2001, pp. 488–490  Pimlott 2001, p. 521  Hardman 2011, pp. 216–217; Pimlott 2001, pp. 503–515; see also Neil 1996, pp. 195–207; Shawcross 2002, pp. 129–132  Thatcher to Brian Walden, quoted in Neil 1996, pp. 207; Neil quoted in Wyatt 1999, diary of 26 October 1990  Campbell 2003, p. 467  Hardman 2011, pp. 167, 171–173  Roberts 2000, p. 101; Shawcross 2002, p. 139  Geddes, John (2012), "The day she descended into the fray", Maclean's (Special Commemorative ed.), p. 72  MacQueen, Ken; Treble, Patricia (2012), "The Jewel in the Crown", Maclean's (Special Commemorative ed.), pp. 43–44  "Queen fulfills a Royal Goal: To visit China", The New York Times, 13 October 1986, archived from the original on 6 June 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022  BBC Books 1991, p. 181  Hardman 2019, p. 437  Bogert, Carroll R. (13 October 1986), "Queen Elizabeth II Arrives In Peking for 6-Day Visit", The Washington Post, ISSN 0190-8286, retrieved 12 October 2022  Lacey 2002, pp. 293–294; Pimlott 2001, p. 541  Hardman 2011, pp. 82–83; Lacey 2002, p. 307; Pimlott 2001, pp. 522–526  Pimlott 2001, pp. 515–516  Pimlott 2001, p. 538  Fisher, Connie (24 November 1992), "Annus horribilis speech", royal.uk, The Royal Household, archived from the original on 3 January 2017, retrieved 18 April 2016  Pimlott 2001, pp. 519–534  Lacey 2002, p. 319; Marr 2011, p. 315; Pimlott 2001, pp. 550–551  Stanglin, Douglas (18 March 2010), "German study concludes 25,000 died in Allied bombing of Dresden", USA Today, archived from the original on 15 May 2010, retrieved 19 March 2010  Brandreth 2004, p. 377; Pimlott 2001, pp. 558–559; Roberts 2000, p. 94; Shawcross 2002, p. 204  Brandreth 2004, p. 377  Bradford 2012, p. 229; Lacey 2002, pp. 325–326; Pimlott 2001, pp. 559–561  Bradford 2012, p. 226; Hardman 2011, p. 96; Lacey 2002, p. 328; Pimlott 2001, p. 561  Pimlott 2001, p. 562  "Queen Threatens to Sue Newspaper", Associated Press News, London, 3 February 1993, archived from the original on 7 April 2022, retrieved 27 December 2021  "Queen Breaks Wrist in Riding Accident", Associated Press News, 17 January 1994, archived from the original on 31 August 2022, retrieved 1 September 2022  "Elizabeth II to visit Russia in October", Evansville Press, Associated Press, 15 July 1994, p. 2, archived from the original on 6 June 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022; Tomaszewski 2002, p. 22  Sloane, Wendy (19 October 1994), "Not all's forgiven as queen tours a czarless Russia", The Christian Science Monitor, Moscow, archived from the original on 5 September 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022  "British queen in Moscow", United Press International, Moscow, 17 October 1994, archived from the original on 12 March 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022  de Waal, Thomas (15 October 1994), "Queen's Visit: Lifting the Clouds of the Past", Moscow Times  "Allo! 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(1973), "The Royal Lineage", Burke's Guide to the Royal Family, London: Burke's Peerage, ISBN 0-220-66222-3 Neil, Andrew (1996), Full Disclosure, Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-64682-7 Nicolson, Harold (1952), King George the Fifth: His Life and Reign, Constable & Co. Petropoulos, Jonathan (2006), Royals and the Reich: The Princes von Hessen in Nazi Germany, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516133-5 Pimlott, Ben (2001), The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-255494-1 Roberts, Andrew (2000), Fraser, Antonia (ed.), The House of Windsor, Cassell & Co., ISBN 0-304-35406-6 Routledge, Paul (1994), Scargill: The Unauthorized Biography, London: Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-638077-8 Shawcross, William (2002), Queen and Country, McClelland & Stewart, ISBN 0-7710-8056-5 Speaight, Robert (1970), Vanier, Soldier, Diplomat, Governor General: A Biography, London: William Collins, Sons and Co. Ltd., ISBN 978-0-00-262252-3 Tomaszewski, Fiona K. (2002), A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905–1914, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-275-97366-7 Warwick, Christopher (2002), Princess Margaret: A Life of Contrasts, London: Carlton Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-233-05106-2 Williamson, David (1987), Debrett's Kings and Queens of Britain, Webb & Bower, ISBN 0-86350-101-X Wyatt, Woodrow (1999), Curtis, Sarah (ed.), The Journals of Woodrow Wyatt, vol. II, Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-77405-1 External links Listen to this article (54 minutes) 53:31 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 23 June 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Family website Queen Elizabeth II at the website of the Government of Canada Portraits of Queen Elizabeth II at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Elizabeth II at IMDb Edit this at Wikidata Appearances on C-SPAN Edit this at Wikidata Titles and succession vte Elizabeth II Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms (1952–2022) Monarchies    Antigua and BarbudaAustraliaBahamasBarbadosBelizeCanadaCeylonFijiGambiaGhanaGrenadaGuyanaJamaicaKenyaMalawiMaltaMauritiusNew ZealandNigeriaPakistanPapua New GuineaSaint Kitts and NevisSaint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesSierra LeoneSolomon IslandsSouth AfricaTanganyikaTrinidad and TobagoTuvaluUgandaUnited Kingdom Family    Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (husband) weddingwedding dresswedding cakeCharles III (son)Anne, Princess Royal (daughter)Prince Andrew, Duke of York (son)Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar (son)George VI (father)Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (mother)Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (sister)Mountbatten-Windsor family Accession and coronation    Proclamation of accessionCoronation Royal guestsParticipants in the processionCoronation chickenCoronation gownMedalHonoursAwardThe Queen's BeastsTreetops HotelMacCormick v Lord Advocate Reign    Annus horribilisHouseholdPersonality and imagePrime ministersPillar Box WarRhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence Queen of RhodesiaChristopher John Lewis incidentLithgow PlotMarcus Sarjeant incident1975 Australian constitutional crisis Palace lettersMichael Fagan incident1987 Fijian coups d'étatDeath of Diana, Princess of Wales1999 Australian republic referendumPerth AgreementState Opening of Parliament 20212022Operation London BridgeDeath and state funeral reactionsqueuedignitaries at the funeral Jubilees    Silver Jubilee    EventsMedalHonoursJubilee GardensJubilee lineJubilee Walkway Ruby Jubilee    Queen's Anniversary Prize Golden Jubilee    Prom at the PalaceParty at the PalaceMedalHonoursThe Odyssey Diamond Jubilee    PageantArmed Forces Parade and MusterThames Pageant GlorianaSpirit of ChartwellConcertGibraltar FlotillaMedalHonours Sapphire Jubilee    Platinum Jubilee    MedalBeaconsPlatinum Party at the PalacePageantPlatinum Jubilee Celebration: A Gallop Through HistoryTrooping the ColourNational Service of ThanksgivingPlatinum PuddingThe Queen's Green CanopyPlatinum Jubilee Civic HonoursThe Bahamas Platinum Jubilee Sailing RegattaThe Queen's Platinum Jubilee ConcertBig Jubilee Read Commonwealth tours    Antigua and BarbudaAustralia official openingsCanadaJamaicaNew ZealandSaint Lucia Ships used    HMS Vanguard (23)SS Gothic (1947)HMY Britannia State visits    Outgoing    State visit to SpainState visit to RussiaState visit to Ireland Incoming    Pope Benedict XVIPresident Michael D. HigginsPresident Xi Jinping Titles and honours    Head of the CommonwealthDefender of the FaithSupreme Governor of the Church of EnglandHead of the British Armed ForcesCommander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed ForcesLord of MannList of things named after Elizabeth IIRoyal Family OrderElizabeth CrossQueen's Official BirthdayFlags Depictions    Televised addresses    Royal address to the nationRoyal Christmas Message Documentaries    Royal Journey (1951)A Queen Is Crowned (1953)The Queen in Australia (1954)The Royal Tour of the Caribbean (1966)Royal Family (1969)Elizabeth R: A Year in the Life of the Queen (1992)Monarchy: The Royal Family at Work (2007)The Diamond Queen (2012)Elizabeth at 90: A Family Tribute (2016)The Coronation (2018)Elizabeth: The Unseen Queen (2022) Film and television    A Question of Attribution (1992 TV)Willi und die Windzors (1996)Her Majesty (2001)The Queen (2006)The Queen (2009 TV serial)Happy and Glorious (2012)A Royal Night Out (2015)Minions (2015)The Crown (2016–)The Queen's Corgi (2019)2020 Alternative Christmas message (2020)The Prince (2021) Plays    A Question of Attribution (1988)The Audience (2013)Handbagged Portraits    Conversation Piece at the Royal Lodge, WindsorWattle QueenPietro Annigoni's portraitsReigning QueensHer Majesty Queen Elizabeth II – An 80th Birthday PortraitThe QueenThe Coronation Theatre: Portrait of HM Queen Elizabeth IIBeautiful Portrait, The QueenQueen Elizabeth IIAlgorithm Queen Statues    WindsorWinnipegLagosYork Minster Books    The Queen and IThe Little PrincessesThe Uncommon ReaderWinnie-the-Pooh Meets the QueenQueen Camilla Songs    "God Save the Queen" (Sex Pistols song)"Her Majesty" Stamps    Machin series (list)Wilding seriesCastle seriesCanadian domestic rate stampCountry definitives Animals    Corgis    DookieSusan Horses    AureoleBurmeseCarrozzaDunfermlineEstimateHeight of FashionHighclerePall MallWinston Related    Jewels of Elizabeth IIElizabeth lineSagana LodgeVilla GuardamangiaDorgiChildren's Party at the PalaceThe Queen's Birthday PartyJeannette CharlesRosa 'Queen Elizabeth'Queen Elizabeth cake Links to related articles vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603    Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation    Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation    Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation    Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation    Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation    Princess Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation    Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhinePrincess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllPrincess Beatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover 7th generation    Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenPrincess Patricia, Lady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthlonePrincess Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover 8th generation    Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodPrincess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of FifePrincess Maud, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation    Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation    Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation    Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor1 12th generation    Princess Charlotte of WalesLilibet Mountbatten-Windsor1 1 Status debatable; see Lady Louise Windsor#Titles and styles and Lilibet Mountbatten-Windsor#Title and succession for details. vte Duchesses of Edinburgh Princess Augusta of Saxe-GothaDuchesses of Gloucester and EdinburghGrand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of RussiaPrincess Elizabeth of the United KingdomCamilla Shand vte Time Persons of the Year 1927–1950    Charles Lindbergh (1927)Walter Chrysler (1928)Owen D. Young (1929)Mohandas Gandhi (1930)Pierre Laval (1931)Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932)Hugh S. Johnson (1933)Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934)Haile Selassie (1935)Wallis Simpson (1936)Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937)Adolf Hitler (1938)Joseph Stalin (1939)Winston Churchill (1940)Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941)Joseph Stalin (1942)George Marshall (1943)Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944)Harry S. Truman (1945)James F. Byrnes (1946)George Marshall (1947)Harry S. Truman (1948)Winston Churchill (1949)The American Fighting-Man (1950) 1951–1975    Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951)Elizabeth II (1952)Konrad Adenauer (1953)John Foster Dulles (1954)Harlow Curtice (1955)Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956)Nikita Khrushchev (1957)Charles de Gaulle (1958)Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959)U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960)John F. Kennedy (1961)Pope John XXIII (1962)Martin Luther King Jr. (1963)Lyndon B. Johnson (1964)William Westmoreland (1965)The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966)Lyndon B. Johnson (1967)The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968)The Middle Americans (1969)Willy Brandt (1970)Richard Nixon (1971)Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972)John Sirica (1973)King Faisal (1974)American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975) 1976–2000    Jimmy Carter (1976)Anwar Sadat (1977)Deng Xiaoping (1978)Ayatollah Khomeini (1979)Ronald Reagan (1980)Lech Wałęsa (1981)The Computer (1982)Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983)Peter Ueberroth (1984)Deng Xiaoping (1985)Corazon Aquino (1986)Mikhail Gorbachev (1987)The Endangered Earth (1988)Mikhail Gorbachev (1989)George H. W. Bush (1990)Ted Turner (1991)Bill Clinton (1992)The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993)Pope John Paul II (1994)Newt Gingrich (1995)David Ho (1996)Andrew Grove (1997)Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998)Jeff Bezos (1999)George W. Bush (2000) 2001–present    Rudolph Giuliani (2001)The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002)The American Soldier (2003)George W. Bush (2004)The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005)You (2006)Vladimir Putin (2007)Barack Obama (2008)Ben Bernanke (2009)Mark Zuckerberg (2010)The Protester (2011)Barack Obama (2012)Pope Francis (2013)Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014)Angela Merkel (2015)Donald Trump (2016)The Silence Breakers (2017)The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018)Greta Thunberg (2019)Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020)Elon Musk (2021) vte Monarchs of Canada House of Hanover (1867–1901)    Victoria House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1901–1917)    Edward VIIGeorge V House of Windsor (1917–present)    George VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III vte Heads of state of Barbados Queen (1966–2021)    Elizabeth II Flag of Barbados.svg President (from 2021)    Mason vte Heads of state of Fiji Queen (1970–1987)    Elizabeth II Flag of Fiji.svg President (from 1987)    Rabuka§GanilauMaraBainimarama§IloiloBainimarama§IloiloNailatikauKonroteKatonivere §Head of the military regime vte Heads of State of The Gambia Queen (1965–1970)    Elizabeth II flag    The Gambia portal President of the First Republic (1970–1994)    Jawara Military regime (1994–1996)    Jammeh President of the Second Republic (from 1996)    JammehBarrow vte Heads of State of Ghana Queen (1957–1960)    Elizabeth II Flag of Ghana.svg President of the First Republic (1960–1966)    Nkrumah Military regime (1966–1969)    AnkrahAfrifa President of the Second Republic (1969–1972)    AfrifaOllennu*E. Akufo-Addo Military regime (1972–1979)    AcheampongAkuffoRawlings President of the Third Republic (1979–1981)    Limann Military regime (1981–1993)    Rawlings President of the Fourth Republic (from 1993)    RawlingsKufuorMillsMahamaN. Akufo-Addo *Acting President vte Heads of State of Guyana Queen (1966–1970)    Elizabeth II Flag of Guyana.svg President (from 1970)    ChungBurnhamHoyteC. JaganHindsJ. JaganJagdeoRamotarGrangerAli vte Heads of state of Jamaica Monarch (from 1962)    Elizabeth IICharles III flag    Jamaica portal Governor-General (from 1962)    BlackburneCampbellGlasspoleCookeHallAllen vte Heads of State of Kenya Queen of Kenya    Elizabeth II Flag of Kenya.svg President of Kenya    Jomo KenyattaDaniel arap MoiMwai KibakiUhuru KenyattaWilliam Ruto vte Heads of State of Malawi Queen (1964–1966)    Elizabeth II Flag of Malawi.svg President (from 1966)    H. BandaMuluziB. MutharikaJ. BandaP. MutharikaChakwera vte Heads of State of Malta Queen (1964–1974)    Elizabeth II Flag of Malta.svg President (from 1974)    MamoButtigiegHyzler*BarbaraXuereb*TaboneMifsud Bonnicide MarcoFenech AdamiAbelaColeiro PrecaVella *Acting President vte Heads of State of Mauritius Queen (1968–1992)    Elizabeth II Flag of Mauritius.svg President (from 1992)    RingadooUteemChettiar*Pillay*OffmannBundhun*JugnauthBellepeau*PurryagBellepeau*GuribVyapoory*Balancy*Roopun *Acting President vte Heads of state of Nigeria Queen (1960–1963)    Elizabeth II Flag of Nigeria.svg President of the First Republic (1963–1966)    Azikiwe Military regime (1966–1979)    Aguiyi-IronsiGowonMohammedObasanjo President of the Second Republic (1979–1983)    Shehu Shagari Military regime (1983–1999)    BuhariBabangidaShonekan (interim)*AbachaAbubakar President of the Fourth Republic (from 1999)    ObasanjoYar'AduaJonathanBuhari *Civilian; headed transition to abortive Third Republic vte Heads of State of Pakistan Monarch (1947–1956)    George VIElizabeth II Flag of Pakistan.svg President (from 1956)    MirzaA. Khan§Y. Khan§BhuttoChaudhryZia§G. KhanSajjad*LeghariSajjad*TararMusharraf§Soomro*ZardariHussainAlvi §Head of the military regime  *Acting President vte Heads of State of Sierra Leone Queen (1961–1971)    Elizabeth II Flag of Sierra Leone.svg President of the First Republic (1971–1992)    Cole*StevensMomoh Military regime (1992–1996)    KanuStrasserBio President of the Second Republic (1996–1997)    Kabbah Military regime (1997–1998)    J. P. Koroma President of the Second Republic (since 1998)    KabbahE. B. KoromaBio *Acting President vte Heads of State of Ceylon and Sri Lanka Monarch of Ceylon (1948–1972)    George VIElizabeth II Flag of Ceylon (1951–1972).svg Flag of Ceylon (1951–1972).svg Flag of Sri Lanka.svg President of Sri Lanka (from 1972)    GopallawaJayewardenePremadasaWijetungaKumaratungaRajapaksaSirisena vte Heads of State of South Africa Monarch (1910–1961)    George VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth II Red Ensign of South Africa (1912–1951).svg Flag of South Africa (1928–1994).svg Flag of South Africa.svg State President (1961–1994) (under Apartheid)    Charles Robberts SwartEben Dönges†Tom Naudé*Jim FouchéJan de Klerk*Nico Diederichs†Marais Viljoen*John VorsterMarais ViljoenP. W. BothaF. W. de Klerk President (from 1994) (post-Apartheid)    Nelson MandelaThabo MbekiIvy Matsepe-Casaburri*Kgalema MotlantheJacob ZumaCyril Ramaphosa †Died in office *Acting President vte Heads of State of Tanzania Queen of Tanganyika (1961–1962)    Elizabeth II Flag of Tanganyika Flag of Tanzania President of Tanganyika (1962–1964)    Nyerere Tanzania* (from 1964)    NyerereMwinyiMkapaKikweteMagufuli *Merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar vte Heads of state of Trinidad and Tobago Queen (1962–1976)    Elizabeth II Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg President (from 1976)    ClarkeHassanaliRobinsonRichardsCarmonaWeekes Presidential elections    1976198219871992199720032008201320182023 vte Heads of State of Uganda Queen (1962–1963)    Elizabeth II Flag of Uganda.svg President (from 1963)    Edward Mutesa IIMilton OboteIdi AminYusuf LuleGodfrey BinaisaPaulo MuwangaPresidential CommissionMilton OboteBazilio Olara-OkelloTito OkelloYoweri Museveni vte Heads of State of Zimbabwe and its antecedents  Southern Rhodesia (1923–1965, the internationally accepted legal name until 1980)    George VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth II  Rhodesia (1965–1979, an unrecognised state)    Clifford DupontHenry Everard*John WrathallHenry Everard*Jack Pithey*Henry Everard*  Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979, an unrecognised state)    Josiah Zion Gumede  Zimbabwe (since 1980, a recognised state)    Canaan BananaRobert MugabeEmmerson Mnangagwa *Acting President Portals: icon Monarchy  British Empire flag United Kingdom flag England icon London flag Scotland flag Wales icon Northern Ireland flag Australia flag Belize flag Canada flag Jamaica flag New Zealand flag Tuvalu Elizabeth II at Wikipedia's sister projects: Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Data from Wikidata Authority control Edit this at Wikidata General    ISNI 1VIAF 123WorldCat National libraries    NorwayChileSpainFrance (data)CataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaKoreaCroatiaPolandRussia 2SwedenVatican Art galleries and museums    Te Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes    Artist Names (Getty) Biographical dictionaries    Germany Scientific databases    CiNii (Japan) Other    Faceted Application of Subject TerminologyMusicBrainz artistNational Archives (US)RISM (France) 1RERO (Switzerland) 1Social Networks and Archival ContextSUDOC (France) 1Trove (Australia) 1 Categories: Elizabeth II1926 births2022 deaths20th-century British monarchs20th-century British women21st-century British monarchs21st-century British womenAuxiliary Territorial Service officersBritish AnglicansBritish philanthropistsBritish PresbyteriansBritish princessesBritish racehorse owners and breedersBritish women in World War IIBurials at St George's Chapel, Windsor CastleDaughters of emperorsDeaths in ScotlandDethroned monarchsDuchesses of EdinburghHeads of state of Antigua and BarbudaHeads of state of the BahamasHeads of state of BarbadosHeads of state of BelizeHeads of state of CanadaHeads of state of FijiHeads of state of the GambiaHeads of state of GhanaHeads of state of GrenadaHeads of state of GuyanaHeads of state of JamaicaHeads of state of KenyaHeads of state of MalawiHeads of state of MaltaHeads of state of MauritiusHeads of state of New ZealandHeads of state of NigeriaHeads of state of PakistanHeads of state of Papua New GuineaHeads of state of Saint Kitts and NevisHeads of state of Saint LuciaHeads of state of Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesHeads of state of Sierra LeoneHeads of state of the Solomon IslandsHeads of state of TanganyikaHeads of state of Trinidad and TobagoHeads of state of TuvaluHeads of state of UgandaHeads of the CommonwealthHeirs to the British throneHonorary air commodoresHouse of WindsorJewellery collectorsLord High AdmiralsMonarchs of AustraliaMonarchs of CeylonMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of South AfricaMonarchs of the United KingdomPeople from MayfairPeople named in the Paradise PapersQueens regnant in the British IslesTime Person of the YearWomen in the Canadian armed services Queen Victoria Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...) Reign    20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation    28 June 1838 Predecessor    William IV Successor    Edward VII Empress of India Reign    1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar    1 January 1877 Successor    Edward VII Born    Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died    22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial    4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse    Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ​ ​ (m. 1840; died 1861)​ Issue        Victoria, German Empress     Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom     Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine     Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha     Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein     Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll     Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn     Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany     Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg House    Hanover Father    Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother    Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Signature    Victoria's signature Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Portrait of Victoria at age 4 Victoria at age four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2] At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was fourth in line.[4] The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother, William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In 1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Early reign Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887. Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Coronation portrait by George Hayter At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:     I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68] Married reign Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74] In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Queen Victoria's British prime ministers     vte Starting     Prime Minister (party) 18 April 1835     William Lamb, Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 30 August 1841     Robert Peel (Conservative) 30 June 1846     Lord John Russell (Whig) 23 February 1852     Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 19 December 1852     George Hamilton-Gordon, Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 6 February 1855     Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 20 February 1858     Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 12 June 1859     Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 29 October 1865     Lord John Russell (Liberal) 28 June 1866     Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby (Conservative) 27 February 1868     Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative) 3 December 1868     William Gladstone (Liberal) 20 February 1874     Benjamin Disraeli [Lord Beaconsfield] (Conservative) 23 April 1880     William Gladstone (Liberal) 23 June 1885     Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) 1 February 1886     William Gladstone (Liberal) 25 July 1886     Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) 15 August 1892     William Gladstone (Liberal) 5 March 1894     Archibald Primrose, Earl of Rosebery (Liberal) 25 June 1895     Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Marquess of Salisbury (Conservative) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and Imperial premiers Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[105] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[106] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[107] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[108] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Victoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[117] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120] Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[123] Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[126] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[130] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[132] In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[137] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139] On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[142] Empress     Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[145] Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[146] In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[150] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[152] Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[154] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[155] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[157] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[158] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Two schoolboys from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[161] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[162] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[163] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[167] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[168] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[169] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[170] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[173] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In 1887, the British Empire celebrated the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[177][178][179] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[181] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[183] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[184] Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[186] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[187] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191] The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[195] Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[197] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[201] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward, Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[206] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied doing so.[209] According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death. Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[221] Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[223] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[224] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[230] Namesakes The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa's largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland), and the capital of the island nation of Seychelles. The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War,[231] and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday). Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles     24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent     20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901: Her Majesty The Queen At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232] Honours British honours     Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233]     Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[234]     Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[235]     Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[236]     Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[237]     Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[238]     Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[239]     Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[240]     Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[241] Foreign honours     Spain:         Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[242]         Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[243]     Portugal:         Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[244]         Grand Cross of Our Lady of Conception[243]     Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[245]     France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[246]     Mexico: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[247]     Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[248]     Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[249]     Persia:[250]         Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873         Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873     Siam:         Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[251]         Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[252]     Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[253]     Serbia:[254][255]         Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882         Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883         Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897     Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[256]     Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[257]     Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[258]     Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[259]     Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[260] Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland. Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg      Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg Royal arms (outside Scotland)     Royal arms (in Scotland) Family Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria. Issue See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IX Name     Birth     Death     Spouse and children[232][261] Victoria, Princess Royal     21 November 1840     5 August 1901     Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888); 4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece) Edward VII of the United Kingdom     9 November 1841     6 May 1910     Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925); 3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway) Princess Alice     25 April 1843     14 December 1878     Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892); 2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha     6 August 1844     31 July 1900     Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920); 2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania) Princess Helena     25 May 1846     9 June 1923     Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917); 4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters Princess Louise     18 March 1848     3 December 1939     Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914); no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn     1 May 1850     16 January 1942     Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917); 1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany     7 April 1853     28 March 1884     Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922); 1 son, 1 daughter Princess Beatrice     14 April 1857     26 October 1944     Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896); 3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain) Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Victoria[262] Family tree       Red borders indicate British monarchs         Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V Notes Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh).     Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581. References Citations Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35 Longford, p. 24 Worsley, p. 41. Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25 Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers. 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Archived 9 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine "Silver Wedding medal of Duke Alfred of Saxe-Coburg & Grand Duchess Marie", Royal Collection, archived from the original on 12 December 2019, retrieved 12 December 2019 Whitaker's Almanack (1993) Concise Edition, London: J. Whitaker and Sons, ISBN 0-85021-232-4, pp. 134–136     Louda, Jiří; Maclagan, Michael (1999), Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe, London: Little, Brown, p. 34, ISBN 978-1-85605-469-0 Bibliography     Charles, Barrie (2012), Kill the Queen! The Eight Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria, Stroud: Amberley Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4456-0457-2     Hibbert, Christopher (2000), Queen Victoria: A Personal History, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-638843-4     Longford, Elizabeth (1964), Victoria R.I., London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-17001-5     Marshall, Dorothy (1972), The Life and Times of Queen Victoria (1992 reprint ed.), London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-83166-6     Packard, Jerrold M. (1998), Victoria's Daughters, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-24496-7     Potts, D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria's Gene: Haemophilia and the Royal Family, Stroud: Alan Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-1199-9     St. Aubyn, Giles (1991), Queen Victoria: A Portrait, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, ISBN 1-85619-086-2     Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and Windus     Waller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2     Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9     Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2     Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow, London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8 Primary sources     Benson, A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. (1907), The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection of Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861, London: John Murray     Bolitho, Hector, ed. (1938), Letters of Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of Brandenburg-Prussia, London: Thornton Butterworth     Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1926), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd Series 1862–1885, London: John Murray     Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1930), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd Series 1886–1901, London: John Murray     Connell, Brian (1962), Regina v. Palmerston: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837–1865, London: Evans Brothers     Duff, David, ed. (1968), Victoria in the Highlands: The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, London: Muller     Dyson, Hope; Tennyson, Charles, eds. (1969), Dear and Honoured Lady: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson, London: Macmillan     Esher, Viscount, ed. (1912), The Girlhood of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832 and 1840, London: John Murray     Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861, London: Evans Brothers     Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers     Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers     Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans Brothers     Fulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans Brothers     Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7     Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-434-34861-9     Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray     Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy     Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan     Ramm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6     Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder     Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder Further reading     Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4     Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0     Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury     Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press     Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto     Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7     Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press     Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876     Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3     James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630     Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire     Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8     Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin     Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777     Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2     Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0 External links Listen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes) 1:01:53 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Victoria at Wikipedia's sister projects     Media from Commons     Quotations from Wikiquote     Texts from Wikisource     Data from Wikidata     Portraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata     Queen Victoria's Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian Library     Works by Queen Victoria at Project Gutenberg     Works by or about Queen Victoria at Internet Archive     Works by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)     Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Queen Victoria House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901 Regnal titles Preceded by William IV     Queen of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901     Succeeded by Edward VII Vacant Title last held by Bahadur Shah II as Mughal emperor     Empress of India 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901     vte Queen Victoria Events        Coronation         Honours Hackpen White Horse Wedding         Wedding dress Golden Jubilee         Honours Medal Police Medal Clock Tower, Weymouth Clock Tower, Brighton Bust Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition Diamond Jubilee         Honours Medal Jubilee Diamond Jubilee Tower Cherries jubilee Recessional (poem) Cunningham Clock Tower Devonshire House Ball Reign        Bedchamber crisis Prime Ministers Edward Oxford Empress of India John William Bean Victorian era Victorian morality Visits to Manchester Foreign visits State funeral Mausoleum Family        Albert, Prince Consort (husband) Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter) Edward VII (son) Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son) Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter) Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter) Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son) Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (daughter) 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Queen Victoria's journals John Brown Abdul Karim Pets         Dash Diamond Crown     vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603    Monarchs of Scotland until 1603     Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Sweyn Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold I Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I          Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI     Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603     James I and VI Charles I Charles II James II and VII William III and II and Mary II Anne     British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707     Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II     Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.     vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation        Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation        Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Princess Amelia Princess Caroline Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel Louise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation        Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick Princess Elizabeth Princess Louisa Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation        Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of Württemberg Princess Augusta Sophia Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh Princess Sophia Princess Amelia Princess Sophia of Gloucester Princess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation        Princess Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Princess Elizabeth of Clarence Queen Victoria Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 6th generation        Victoria, Princess Royal and German Empress Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine Princess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-Rammingen Princess Marie of Hanover 7th generation        Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife Princess Victoria Maud, Queen of Norway Marie, Queen of Romania Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia Princess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg Princess Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden Princess Patricia, Lady Patricia Ramsay Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone Princess Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Princess Olga of Hanover 8th generation        Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife Princess Maud, Countess of Southesk Princess Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten Princess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Frederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation        Queen Elizabeth II Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation        Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation        Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor1 12th generation        Princess Charlotte of Cambridge 1 Status debatable; see her article.     vte Hanoverian princesses by birth Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III. 1st generation        Charlotte, Queen of Württemberg Princess Augusta Sophia Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh Princess Sophia Princess Amelia 2nd generation        Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Princess Charlotte of Clarence Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom Princess Elizabeth of Clarence Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck 3rd generation        Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-Rammingen Princess Marie 4th generation        Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Princess Olga 5th generation        Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes 6th generation        Princess Marie, Countess von Hochberg Princess Olga Princess Alexandra, Princess of Leiningen Princess Friederike 7th generation        Princess Alexandra Princess Eugenia 8th generation        Princess Elisabeth Princess Eleonora Princess Sofia Authority control Edit this at Wikidata General        ISNI         1 VIAF         1 WorldCat National libraries        Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Germany Italy Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art galleries and museums        Victoria Te Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes        RKD Artists (Netherlands) Artist Names (Getty) Biographical dictionaries        Germany Scientific databases        CiNii (Japan) Other        Faceted Application of Subject Terminology MusicBrainz artist         2 National Archives (US) RISM (France)         1 Social Networks and Archival Context         2 SUDOC (France)         1 Trove (Australia)         1 Categories:     Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManHeads of state of CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaHeads of state of New ZealandQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo The standard circulating coinage of the United Kingdom, British Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories is denominated in pennies and pounds sterling (symbol "£"), and ranges in value from one penny sterling to two pounds. Since decimalisation, on 15 February 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 (new) pence. Before decimalisation, twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. British coins are minted by the Royal Mint in Llantrisant, Wales. The Royal Mint also commissions the coins' designs. In addition to the circulating coinage, the UK also mints commemorative decimal coins (crowns) in the denomination of five pounds. Ceremonial Maundy money and bullion coinage of gold sovereigns, half sovereigns, and gold and silver Britannia coins are also produced. Some territories outside the United Kingdom, which use the pound sterling, produce their own coinage, with the same denominations and specifications as the UK coinage but with local designs. Currently circulating coinage The current decimal coins consist of one penny and two pence in copper-plated steel, five pence and ten pence in nickel-plated steel, equilateral curve heptagonal twenty pence and fifty pence in cupronickel, and bimetallic one pound and two pound. All circulating coins have an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse, and various national and regional designs, and the denomination, on the reverse. All current coins carry an abbreviated Latin inscription whose full form, ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX, translates to "Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and Defender of the Faith". Denomination     Obverse     Reverse     Diameter     Thickness     Mass     Composition     Edge     Introduced One penny     Queen Elizabeth II     Crowned portcullis with chains (1971–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present)     20.3 mm     1.52 mm     3.56 g     Bronze (97% copper, 2.5% zinc, 0.5% tin)     Smooth     1971 1.65 mm     Copper-plated steel     1992 Two pence     Plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet (1971–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present)     25.9 mm     1.85 mm     7.12 g     Bronze     1971 2.03 mm     Copper-plated steel     1992 Five pence[a]     Queen Elizabeth II     Crowned thistle (1968–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present)     18 mm     1.7 mm     3.25 g     Cupronickel (3:1)     Milled     1990 1.89 mm     Nickel-plated steel     2012 Ten pence[a]     Crowned lion (1968–2008) Segment of the Royal Arms (2008–present)     24.5 mm     1.85 mm     6.5 g     Cupronickel (3:1)     1992 2.05 mm     Nickel-plated steel     2012 Twenty pence     Crowned Tudor Rose     21.4 mm     1.7 mm     5 g     Cupronickel (5:1)     Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon     1982 Segment of the Royal Arms     2008 Fifty pence[a]     Britannia and lion     27.3 mm     1.78 mm     8 g     Cupronickel (3:1)     Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon     1997 Various commemorative designs     1998 Segment of the Royal Arms     2008 One pound     Queen Elizabeth II     Rose, leek, thistle, and shamrock encircled by a coronet     23.03–23.43 mm     2.8 mm     8.75 g     Inner: Nickel-plated alloy Outer: Nickel-brass     Alternately milled and plain (12-sided)     28 March 2017[1] Two pounds[b]     Abstract concentric design representing technological development     28.4 mm     2.5 mm     12 g     Inner: Cupronickel Outer: Nickel-brass     Milled with variable inscription and/or decoration     1997 (issued 1998) Various commemorative designs     1999 Britannia     2015 The specifications and dates of introduction of the 5p, 10p, and 50p coins refer to the current versions. These coins were originally issued in larger sizes in 1968 and 1969 respectively.     This coin was originally issued in a smaller size in a single metal in 1986 for special issues only. It was redesigned as a bi-metallic issue for general circulation in 1997. Production and distribution All genuine UK coins are produced by the Royal Mint. The same coinage is used across the United Kingdom: unlike banknotes, local issues of coins are not produced for different parts of the UK. The pound coin until 2016 was produced in regional designs, but these circulate equally in all parts of the UK (see UK designs, below). Every year, newly minted coins are checked for size, weight, and composition at a Trial of the Pyx. Essentially the same procedure has been used since the 13th century. Assaying is now done by the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths on behalf of HM Treasury. The 1p and 2p coins from 1971 are the oldest standard-issue coins still in circulation. Pre-decimal crowns are the oldest coins in general that are still legal tender, although they are in practice never encountered in general circulation.[2] Coins from the British dependencies and territories that use sterling as their currency are sometimes found in change in other jurisdictions. Strictly, they are not legal tender in the United Kingdom; however, since they have the same specifications as UK coins, they are sometimes tolerated in commerce, and can readily be used in vending machines. UK-issued coins are, on the other hand, generally fully accepted and freely mixed in other British dependencies and territories that use the pound. An extensive coinage redesign was commissioned by the Royal Mint in 2005, and new designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from summer 2008. Except for the £1 coin, the pre-2008 coins remain legal tender and are expected to stay in circulation for the foreseeable future. The estimated volume in circulation as at March 2016 is:[3] Denomination     Number of pieces (millions)     Face value (£m) Two pounds     479     957.036 One pound     1,671     1,671.328 Fifty pence     1,053     526.153 Twenty-five pence     81     20 Twenty pence     3,004     600.828 Ten pence     1,713     171.312 Five pence     4,075     203.764 Two pence     6,714     134.273 One penny     11,430     114.299 Total     30,139     4,643.658 History of pre-decimal coinage The penny before 1500 See also: Penny (English coin) and Scottish coinage The English silver penny first appeared in the 8th century CE in adoption of Western Europe's Carolingian monetary system wherein 12 pence made a shilling and 20 shillings made a pound. The weight of the English penny was fixed at 22+1⁄2 troy grains (about 1.46 grams) by Offa of Mercia, an 8th-century contemporary of Charlemagne; 240 pennies weighed 5,400 grains or a tower pound (different from the troy pound of 5,760 grains). The silver penny was the only coin minted for 500 years, from c. 780 to 1280. From the time of Charlemagne until the 12th century, the silver currency of England was made from the highest purity silver available. But there were disadvantages to minting currency of fine silver, notably the level of wear it suffered, and the ease with which coins could be "clipped", or trimmed. In 1158 a new standard for English coinage was established by Henry II with the "Tealby Penny" — the sterling silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today. The weight of a silver penny stayed constant at above 22 grains until 1344; afterwards its weight was reduced to 18 grains in 1351, to 15 grains in 1412, to 12 grains in 1464, and to 101⁄2 grains in 1527. The history of the Royal Mint stretches back to AD 886.[4] For many centuries production was in London, initially at the Tower of London, and then at premises nearby in Tower Hill in what is today known as Royal Mint Court. In the 1970s production was transferred to Llantrisant in South Wales.[5] Historically Scotland and England had separate coinage; the last Scottish coins were struck in 1709 shortly after union with England.[6] The penny after 1500 During the reign of Henry VIII, the silver content was gradually debased, reaching a low of one-third silver. However, in Edward VI's reign in 1551, this debased coinage was discontinued in favor of a return to sterling silver with the penny weighing 8 grains. The first crowns and half-crowns were produced that year. From this point onwards till 1920, sterling was the rule. Coins were originally hand-hammered — an ancient technique in which two dies are struck together with a blank coin between them. This was the traditional method of manufacturing coins in the Western world from the classical Greek era onwards, in contrast with Asia, where coins were traditionally cast. Milled (that is, machine-made) coins were produced first during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and periodically during the subsequent reigns of James I and Charles I, but there was initially opposition to mechanisation from the moneyers, who ensured that most coins continued to be produced by hammering. All British coins produced since 1662 have been milled. By 1601 it was decreed that one troy ounce or 480 grains of sterling silver be minted into 62 pennies (i.e. each penny weighed 7.742 grains). By 1696, the currency had been seriously weakened by an increase in clipping during the Nine Years' War[7] to the extent that it was decided to recall and replace all hammered silver coinage in circulation.[8] The exercise came close to disaster due to fraud and mismanagement,[9] but was saved by the personal intervention of Isaac Newton after his appointment as Warden of the Mint, a post which was intended to be a sinecure, but which he took seriously.[8] Newton was subsequently given the post of Master of the Mint in 1699. Following the 1707 union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, Newton used his previous experience to direct the 1707–1710 Scottish recoinage, resulting in a common currency for the new Kingdom of Great Britain. After 15 September 1709 no further silver coins were ever struck in Scotland.[10] As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury[11] the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.[12] Due to differing valuations in other European countries this unintentionally resulted in a silver shortage, as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard, rather than the bimetallic standard implied by the proclamation. The coinage reform of 1816 set up a weight/value ratio and physical sizes for silver coins. Each troy ounce of sterling silver was henceforth minted into 66 pence or 51⁄2 shillings. In 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with some of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for long. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, except for Maundy coinage, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition. The 1816 weight/value ratio and size system survived the debasement of silver in 1920, and the adoption of token coins of cupronickel in 1947. It even persisted after decimalisation for those coins which had equivalents and continued to be minted with their values in new pence. The UK finally abandoned it in 1992 when smaller, more convenient, "silver" coins were introduced. History of decimal coinage Decimalisation Since decimalisation on 15 February 1971 the pound (symbol "£") has been divided into 100 pence. (Prior to decimalisation the pound was divided into 20 shillings, each of 12 [old] pence; thus, there were 240 [old] pence to the pound). The pound remained as Britain's currency unit after decimalisation (unlike in many other British commonwealth countries, which dropped the pound upon decimalisation by introducing dollars or new units worth 10 shillings or 1⁄2 pound). The following coins were introduced with these reverse designs:     Half penny, 1971–1984: A crown, symbolising the monarch.     One penny, 1971–2007: A crowned portcullis with chains (the badge of the Houses of Parliament).     Two pence, 1971–2007: The Prince of Wales's feathers: a plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet.     Five pence, 1968–2007: The Badge of Scotland, a thistle royally crowned.     Ten pence, 1968–2007: The lion of England royally crowned.     Fifty pence, 1969–2007: Britannia and lion. The first decimal coins – the five pence (5p) and ten pence (10p) — were introduced in 1968 in the run-up to decimalisation in order to familiarise the public with the new system. These initially circulated alongside the pre-decimal coinage and had the same size and value as the existing one shilling and two shilling coins respectively. The fifty pence (50p) coin followed in 1969, replacing the old ten shilling note. The remaining decimal coins – at the time, the half penny (1⁄2p), penny (1p) and two pence (2p) — were issued in 1971 at decimalisation. A quarter-penny coin, to be struck in aluminium, was proposed at the time decimalisation was being planned, but was never minted. The new coins were initially marked with the wording NEW PENNY (singular) or NEW PENCE (plural). The word "new" was dropped in 1982. The symbol "p" was adopted to distinguish the new pennies from the old, which used the symbol "d" (from the Latin denarius, a coin used in the Roman Empire). Updates 1982–1998 In the years since decimalisation, a number of changes have been made to the coinage; these new denominations were introduced with the following designs:     Twenty pence, 1982–2007: A crowned Tudor Rose, a traditional heraldic emblem of England (NB With incuse design and lettering).     One pound, 1983–2016: various designs; see One pound (British coin).     Two pounds, 1997–2014: An abstract design of concentric circles, representing technological development from the Iron Age to the modern day electronic age. Additionally:     The halfpenny was discontinued in 1984.     The composition of the 1p and 2p was changed in 1992 from bronze to copper-plated steel without changing the design.     The sizes of the 5p, 10p and 50p coins were reduced in 1990, 1992 and 1997, respectively, also without changing the design. The twenty pence (20p) coin was introduced in 1982 to fill the gap between the 10p and 50p coins. The pound coin (£1) was introduced in 1983 to replace the Bank of England £1 banknote which was discontinued in 1984 (although the Scottish banks continued producing them for some time afterwards; the last of them, the Royal Bank of Scotland £1 note, is still issued in a small volume as of 2021). The designs on the £1 coin changed annually in a largely five-year cycle, until the introduction of the new 12-sided £1 coin in 2017. The decimal halfpenny coin was demonetised in 1984 as its value was by then too small to be useful. The pre-decimal sixpence, shilling and two shilling coins, which had continued to circulate alongside the decimal coinage with values of 2+1⁄2p, 5p and 10p respectively, were finally withdrawn in 1980, 1990 and 1993 respectively. The double florin and crown, with values of 20p and 25p respectively, have technically not been withdrawn, but in practice are never seen in general circulation. In the 1990s, the Royal Mint reduced the sizes of the 5p, 10p, and 50p coins. As a consequence, the oldest 5p coins in circulation date from 1990, the oldest 10p coins from 1992 and the oldest 50p coins come from 1997. Since 1997, many special commemorative designs of 50p have been issued. Some of these are found fairly frequently in circulation and some are rare. They are all legal tender. In 1992 the composition of the 1p and 2p coins was changed from bronze to copper-plated steel. Due to their high copper content (97%), the intrinsic value of pre-1992 1p and 2p coins increased with the surge in metal prices of the mid-2000s, until by 2006 the coins would, if melted down, have been worth about 50% more than their face value.[13] (To do this, however, would be illegal, and they would have had to be melted in huge quantities, using quite a bit of energy, to achieve significant gain.) In later years, the price of copper fell considerably.[citation needed] A circulating bimetallic two pound (£2) coin was introduced in 1998 (first minted in, and dated, 1997). There had previously been unimetallic commemorative £2 coins which did not normally circulate. This tendency to use the two pound coin for commemorative issues has continued since the introduction of the bimetallic coin, and a few of the older unimetallic coins have since entered circulation. There are also commemorative issues of crowns. Until 1981, these had a face value of twenty-five pence (25p), equivalent to the five shilling crown used in pre-decimal Britain. However, in 1990 crowns were redenominated with a face value of five pounds (£5)[14] as the previous value was considered not sufficient for such a high-status coin. The size and weight of the coin remained exactly the same. Decimal crowns are generally not found in circulation as their market value is likely to be higher than their face value, but they remain legal tender. Obverse designs All modern British coins feature a profile of the current monarch's head on the obverse. There has been only one monarch since decimalisation, Queen Elizabeth II, so her head appears on all decimal coins, facing to the right (see also Monarch's head, above). However, five different effigies have been used, reflecting the Queen's changing appearance as she has aged. These are the effigies by Mary Gillick (until 1968), Arnold Machin (1968–1984), Raphael Maklouf (1985–1997), Ian Rank-Broadley (1998–2015), and Jody Clark (from 2015).[15] All current coins carry a Latin inscription whose full form is ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX, meaning "Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and Defender of the Faith". The inscription appears on the coins in any of several abbreviated forms, typically ELIZABETH II D G REG F D. 2008 redesign In 2008, UK coins underwent an extensive redesign which eventually changed the reverse designs of all coins, the first wholesale change to British coinage since the first decimal coins were introduced in April 1968.[16] The major design feature was the introduction of a reverse design shared across six coins (1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p, 50p), that can be pieced together to form an image of the Royal Shield. This was the first time a coin design had been featured across multiple coins in this way.[16]To summarize the reverse design changes made in 2008 and afterwards:     The 1p coin depicts the lower part of the first quarter and the upper part of the third quarter of the shield, showing the lions passant of England and the harp of Ireland respectively     The 2p coin depicts most of the second quarter of the shield, showing the lion rampant of Scotland     The 5p coin depicts the centre of the shield, showing the meeting and parts of the constituent parts of the shield     The 10p coin depicts most of the first quarter of the shield, containing the three lions passant of England     The 20p coin depicts the lower part of the second quarter and upper part of the fourth quarter, showing the lion rampant of Scotland and the lions passant of England respectively     The 50p coin depicts the point of the shield and the bottom portions of the second and third quarters showing the harp of Ireland and lions passant of England respectively     The round, nickel-brass £1 coin from 2008–2016 depicted the whole of the Royal Shield. From 2017 it was changed to a bimetallic 12-sided coin depicting a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock bound by a crown.     The £2 coin from 2015 depicts Britannia. The original intention was to exclude both the £1 and £2 coins from the redesign because they were "relatively new additions" to the coinage, but it was later decided to include a £1 coin with a complete Royal Shield design from 2008 to 2016,[17] and the 2015 redesign of the £2 coin occurred due to complaints over the disappearance of Britannia's image from the 50p coin in 2008.[18] On all coins, the beading (ring of small dots) around the edge of the obverses has been removed. The obverse of the 20p coin has also been amended to incorporate the year, which had been on the reverse of the coin since its introduction in 1982 (giving rise to an unusual issue of a mule version without any date at all). The orientation of both sides of the 50p coin has been rotated through 180 degrees, meaning the bottom of the coin is now a corner rather than a flat edge. The numerals showing the decimal value of each coin, previously present on all coins except the £1 and £2, have been removed, leaving the values spelled out in words only. The redesign was the result of a competition launched by the Royal Mint in August 2005, which closed on 14 November 2005. The competition was open to the public and received over 4,000 entries.[16] The winning entry was unveiled on 2 April 2008, designed by Matthew Dent.[16] The Royal Mint stated the new designs were "reflecting a twenty-first century Britain". An advisor to the Royal Mint described the new coins as "post-modern" and said that this was something that could not have been done 50 years previously.[19] The redesign was criticised by some for having no specifically Welsh symbol (such as the Welsh Dragon), because the Royal Shield does not include a specifically Welsh symbol. Wrexham Member of Parliament (MP) Ian Lucas, who was also campaigning to have the Welsh Dragon included on the Union Flag, called the omission "disappointing", and stated that he would be writing to the Queen to request that the Royal Standard be changed to include Wales.[20] The Royal Mint stated that "the Shield of the Royal Arms is symbolic of the whole of the United Kingdom and as such, represents Wales, Scotland, England and Northern Ireland."[20] Designer Dent stated "I am a Welshman and proud of it, but I never thought about the fact we did not have a dragon or another representation of Wales on the design because as far as I am concerned Wales is represented on the Royal Arms. This was never an issue for me."[20] The Royal Mint's choice of an inexperienced coin designer to produce the new coinage was criticised by Virginia Ironside, daughter of Christopher Ironside who designed the previous UK coins. She stated that the new designs were "totally unworkable as actual coins", due to the loss of a numerical currency identifier, and the smaller typeface used.[21] The German news magazine Der Spiegel claimed that the redesign signalled the UK's intention "not to join the euro any time soon".[22] Changes after 2008 As of 2012, 5p and 10p coins have been issued in nickel-plated steel, and much of the remaining cupronickel types withdrawn, in order to retrieve more expensive metals. The new coins are 11% thicker to maintain the same weight.[23][24] There are heightened nickel allergy concerns over the new coins. Studies commissioned by the Royal Mint found no increased discharge of nickel from the coins when immersed in artificial sweat. However, an independent study found that the friction from handling results in four times as much nickel exposure as from the older-style coins. Sweden already plans to desist from using nickel in coins from 2015.[25] In 2016, the £1 coin's composition was changed from a single-metal round shape to a 12-sided bi-metal design, with a slightly larger diameter, and with multiple past designs discontinued in favor of a single, unchanging design. Production of the new coins started in 2016,[26] with the first, dated 2016, entering circulation 28 March 2017.[27] In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design for the £2 coin featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort, with no change to its bimetallic composition.[28] Edge inscriptions on British coins used to be commonly encountered on round £1 coins of 1983–2016, but are nowadays found only on £2 coins. The standard-issue £2 coin from 1997 to 2015 carried the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS. The redesigned coin since 2015 has a new edge inscription QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, Latin for "I will claim the four seas", an inscription previously found on coins bearing the image of Britannia. Other commemorative £2 coins have their own unique edge inscriptions or designs. Obsolete denominations The following decimal coins have been withdrawn from circulation and have ceased to be legal tender. Denomination     Obverse     Reverse     Diameter     Thickness     Mass     Composition     Edge     Introduced     Withdrawn Half Penny     Queen Elizabeth II     St Edward's Crown     17.4 mm     1 mm     1.78 g     Bronze     Smooth     1971     1984 Five pence*     Queen Elizabeth II     Crowned Thistle     23.59 mm     1.7 mm     5.65 g     Cupronickel     Milled     1968     1990 Ten pence*     Crowned Lion     28.5 mm     1.85 mm     11.31 g     1992 Fifty pence*     Seated Britannia alongside a Lion     30.0 mm     2.5 mm     13.5 g     Smooth, Reuleaux heptagon     1969     1997 Various commemorative designs     1973 One Pound†     Queen Elizabeth II     Numerous different designs     22.5 mm     3.15 mm     9.5 g     Nickel-brass     Milled with variable inscription and/or decoration     1983     15 October 2017 Royal Shield     2008 Two pounds     No standard reverse design     28.4 mm     ~3 mm     15.98 g     Nickel-brass     1986     1998 * The specifications and dates of 5p, 10p, and 50p coins refer to the larger sizes issued since 1968. † The specification refers to the round coin issued from 1983–2016. Although obsolete, this coin is still redeemable at banks and the British railway systems, and is still legal tender on the Isle of Man. Commemorative issues Circulating commemorative designs Circulating fifty pence and two pound coins have been issued with various commemorative reverse designs, typically to mark the anniversaries of historical events or the births of notable people. Three commemorative designs were issued of the large version of the 50p: in 1973 (the EEC), 1992–3 (EC presidency) and 1994 (D-Day anniversary). Commemorative designs of the smaller 50p coin have been issued (alongside the Britannia standard issue) in 1998 (two designs), 2000, and from 2003 to 2007 yearly (two designs in 2006). For a complete list, see Fifty pence (British decimal coin). Prior to 1997, the two pound coin was minted in commemorative issues only – in 1986, 1989, 1994, 1995 and 1996. Commemorative £2 coins have been regularly issued since 1999, alongside the standard-issue bi-metallic coins which were introduced in 1997. One or two designs have been minted each year, with the exception of none in 2000, and four regional 2002 issues marking the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. As well as a distinct reverse design, these coins have an edge inscription relevant to the subject. The anniversary themes are continued until at least 2009, with two designs announced. For a complete list, see Two pounds (British decimal coin). From 2018–2019 a series of 10p coins with 26 different designs was put in circulation "celebrating Great Britain with The Royal Mint’s Quintessentially British A to Z series of coins".[29] Non-circulating denominations 1981 commemorative twenty-five pence coin, celebrating the marriage of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer. The following are special-issue commemorative coins, seldom encountered in normal circulation due to their precious metal content or collectible value, but are still considered legal tender.     Twenty-five pence or crown (25p; £0.25), 1972–1981     Five pounds or crown (£5), 1990–present [1]     Twenty pounds (£20), 2013–present     Fifty pounds (£50), 2015–2016     One hundred pounds (£100), 2015–2016 Denomination     Obverse     Reverse     Diameter     Thickness     Mass     Composition     Edge     Introduced 25 pence     Queen Elizabeth II     No standard reverse design     38.61 mm     2.89 mm     28.28 g     Cupronickel or silver     Milled, with variable inscription     1972 5 pounds     1990 20 pounds     27.0 mm     Unknown     15.71 g     Silver     Milled     2013 50 pounds     Britannia     34.0 mm     31 g     2015 100 pounds     Elizabeth Tower 'Big Ben'     40.0 mm     62.86 g Legal tender status of commemorative coins The prolific issuance since 2013 of silver commemorative £20, £50 and £100 coins at face value has led to attempts to spend or deposit these coins, prompting the Royal Mint to clarify the legal tender status of these silver coins as well as the cupronickel £5 coin.[30][31][32] Royal Mint guidelines advise that, although these coins were approved as legal tender, they are considered limited edition collectables not intended for general circulation, and hence shops and banks are not obliged to accept them. Maundy money Maundy money is a ceremonial coinage traditionally given to the poor, and nowadays awarded annually to deserving senior citizens. There are Maundy coins in denominations of one, two, three and four pence. They bear dates from 1822 to the present and are minted in very small quantities. Though they are legal tender in the UK, they are rarely or never encountered in circulation. The pre-decimal Maundy pieces have the same legal tender status and value as post-decimal ones, and effectively increased in face value by 140% upon decimalisation. Their numismatic value is much greater. Maundy coins still bear the original portrait of the Queen as used in the circulating coins of the first years of her reign. Bullion coinage The traditional bullion coin issued by Britain is the gold sovereign, formerly a circulating coin worth 20 shillings (or one pound) and with 0.23542 troy ounces (7.322 g) of fine gold, but now with a nominal value of one pound. The Royal Mint continues to produce sovereigns, as well as quarter sovereigns (introduced in 2009), half sovereigns, double sovereigns and quintuple sovereigns. Between 1987 and 2012 a series of bullion coins, the Britannia, was issued, containing 1 troy ounce (31.1 g), 1⁄2 ounce, 1⁄4 ounce and 1⁄10 ounce of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 916 (22 carat) and with face values of £100, £50, £25, and £10. Since 2013 Britannia bullion contains 1 troy ounce of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 999 (24 carat). Between 1997 and 2012 silver bullion coins have also been produced under the name "Britannias". The alloy used was Britannia silver (millesimal fineness 958). The silver coins were available in 1 troy ounce (31.1 g), 1⁄2 ounce, 1⁄4 ounce and 1⁄10 ounce sizes. Since 2013 the alloy used is silver at a (millesimal fineness 999). In 2016 the Royal Mint launched a series of 10 Queen's Beasts bullion coins,[33] one for each beast available in both gold and silver. The Royal Mint also issues silver, gold and platinum proof sets of the circulating coins, as well as gift products such as gold coins set into jewellery. Non-UK coinage The British Islands (red) and overseas territories (blue) using the Pound or their local issue. Outside the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey use the pound sterling as their currencies. However, they produce local issues of coinage in the same denominations and specifications, but with different designs. These circulate freely alongside UK coinage and English, Northern Irish, and Scottish banknotes within these territories, but must be converted in order to be used in the UK. The island of Alderney also produces occasional commemorative coins. (See coins of the Jersey pound, coins of the Guernsey pound, and Alderney pound for details.). The Isle of Man is a unique case among the Crown Dependencies, issuing its own currency, the Manx pound.[citation needed] While the Isle of Man recognises the Pound Sterling as a secondary currency, coins of the Manx pound are not legal tender in the UK. The pound sterling is also the official currency of the British overseas territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands,[34] British Antarctic Territory[35] and Tristan da Cunha.[36] South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands produces occasional special collectors' sets of coins.[37] In 2008, British Antarctic Territory issued a £2 coin commemorating the centenary of Britain's claim to the region.[38] The currencies of the British overseas territories of Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands and Saint Helena/Ascension — namely the Gibraltar pound, Falkland Islands pound and Saint Helena pound — are pegged one-to-one to the pound sterling but are technically separate currencies. These territories issue their own coinage, again with the same denominations and specifications as the UK coinage but with local designs, as coins of the Gibraltar pound, coins of the Falkland Islands pound and coins of the Saint Helena pound. The other British overseas territories do not use sterling as their official currency. Pre-decimal coinage Half crown, 1953 Two shilling coin, or florin, 1949 Shilling, 1956, showing English and Scottish reverses For further information about the history of pre-decimal coinage, see Pound sterling and Decimal Day. System Before decimalisation in 1971, the pound was divided into 240 pence rather than 100, though it was rarely expressed in this way. Rather it was expressed in terms of pounds, shillings and pence, where:     £1 = 20 shillings (20s).     1 shilling = 12 pence (12d). Thus: £1 = 240d. The penny was further subdivided at various times, though these divisions vanished as inflation made them irrelevant:     1 penny = 2 halfpennies and (earlier) 4 farthings (half farthing, a third of a farthing, and quarter farthing coins were minted in the late 19th century, and into the early 20th century in the case of the third farthing, but circulated only in certain British colonies and not in the UK). Using the example of five shillings and sixpence, the standard ways of writing shillings and pence were:     5s 6d     5/6     5/- for 5 shillings only, with the dash to stand for zero pennies. The sum of 5/6 would be spoken as "five shillings and sixpence" or "five and six". The abbreviation for the old penny, d, was derived from the Roman denarius, and the abbreviation for the shilling, s, from the Roman solidus. The shilling was also denoted by the slash symbol, also called a solidus for this reason, which was originally an adaptation of the long s.[39] The symbol "£", for the pound, is derived from the first letter of the Latin word for pound, libra.[40] A similar pre-decimal system operated in France, also based on the Roman currency, consisting of the livre (L), sol or sou (s) and denier (d). Until 1816 another similar system was used in the Netherlands, consisting of the gulden (G), stuiver (s; 1⁄20 G) and duit, (d; 1⁄8 s or 1⁄160 G). Denominations For an extensive list of historical pre-decimal coin denominations, see List of British banknotes and coins. In the years just prior to decimalisation, the circulating British coins were: Denomination     Obverse     Reverse     Diameter     Thickness     Mass     Composition     Edge     Introduced     Withdrawn Farthing (1⁄4d)     Various Monarchs     Wren (Britannia on early mintages)     20.19 mm         2.83 g     Bronze     Smooth     1860     1961 Half penny (1⁄2d)     Golden Hind (Britannia on early mintages)     25.48 mm         5.67 g     1969 Penny (1d)     Britannia     31 mm         9.45 g     1971 Threepence (3d)     King George VI 1937–1952 Queen Elizabeth II 1953–1971     Thrift until 1952 Crowned portcullis with chains     21.0–21.8 mm     2.5 mm     6.8 g     Nickel-brass     Plain (12-sided)     1937     1971 Sixpence (6d)     King George VI 1946–1952 Queen Elizabeth II 1953–1971     Crowned royal cypher until 1952 Floral design – Four Home Nations     19.41 mm         2.83 g     Cupronickel     Milled     1947     1980 Shilling (1/-)     Crowned lion on Tudor crown or Crowned lion standing on Scottish crown until 1952 Coat of Arms of England or Scotland     23.60 mm     1.7 mm     5.66 g     1990 Florin (2/-)     Crowned rose flanked by a thistle and shamrock until 1952 Rose encircled by thistle, leek and shamrock     28.5 mm     1.85 mm     11.31 g     1992 Half crown (2/6)     Royal Shield flanked by crowned royal cypher until 1952 Crowned Royal Shield     32.31 mm         14.14 g     1969 Crown (5/-)     Various commemorative designs     38 mm     2.89 mm     28.28 g     1951     Present The farthing (1⁄4d) had been demonetised on 1 January 1961, whilst the crown (5/-) was issued periodically as a commemorative coin but rarely found in circulation. The crown, half crown, florin, shilling, and sixpence were cupronickel coins (in historical times silver or silver alloy); the penny, halfpenny, and farthing were bronze; and the threepence was a twelve-sided nickel-brass coin (historically it was a small silver coin). Some of the pre-decimalisation coins with exact decimal equivalent values continued in use after 1971 alongside the new coins, albeit with new names (the shilling became equivalent to the 5p coin, with the florin equating to 10p), and the others were withdrawn almost immediately. The use of florins and shillings as legal tender in this way ended in 1991 and 1993 when the 5p and 10p coins were replaced with smaller versions. Indeed, while pre-decimalisation shillings were used as 5p coins, for a while after decimalisation many people continued to call the new 5p coin a shilling, since it remained 1⁄20 of a pound, but was now counted as 5p (five new pence) instead of 12d (twelve old pennies). The pre-decimalisation sixpence, also known as a sixpenny bit or sixpenny piece, was equivalent to 2+1⁄2p, but was demonetised in 1980. Pre-decimal coins of the pound sterling     Five pounds     Double sovereign     Sovereign     Crown     Half crown     Florin     Shilling     Sixpence     Groat     Threepence     Penny     Halfpenny     Farthing     Half farthing     Third farthing     Quarter farthing Five pounds     1     2+1⁄2     5     20     40     50     100     200     300     400     1200     2400     4800     9600     14400     19200 Double sovereign     2⁄5     1     2     8     16     20     40     80     120     160     480     960     1920     3840     5760     7680 Sovereign     1⁄5     1⁄2     1     4     8     10     20     40     60     80     240     480     960     1920     2880     3840 Crown     1⁄20     1⁄8     1⁄4     1     2     2+1⁄2     5     10     15     20     60     120     240     480     720     960 Half crown     1⁄40     1⁄16     1⁄8     1⁄2     1     1+1⁄4     2+1⁄2     5     7+1⁄2     10     30     60     120     240     360     480 Florin     1⁄50     1⁄20     1⁄10     2⁄5     4⁄5     1     2     4     6     8     24     48     96     192     288     384 Shilling     1⁄100     1⁄40     1⁄20     1⁄5     2⁄5     1⁄2     1     2     3     4     12     24     48     96     144     192 Sixpence     1⁄200     1⁄80     1⁄40     1⁄10     1⁄5     1⁄4     1⁄2     1     1+1⁄2     2     6     12     24     48     72     96 Groat     1⁄300     1⁄120     1⁄60     1⁄15     2⁄15     1⁄6     1⁄3     2⁄3     1     1+1⁄3     4     8     16     32     48     64 Threepence     1⁄400     1⁄160     1⁄80     1⁄20     1⁄10     1⁄8     1⁄4     1⁄2     3⁄4     1     3     6     12     24     36     48 Penny     1⁄1200     1⁄480     1⁄240     1⁄60     1⁄30     1⁄24     1⁄12     1⁄6     1⁄4     1⁄3     1     2     4     8     12     16 Halfpenny     1⁄2400     1⁄960     1⁄480     1⁄120     1⁄60     1⁄48     1⁄24     1⁄12     1⁄8     1⁄6     1⁄2     1     2     4     6     8 Farthing     1⁄4800     1⁄1920     1⁄960     1⁄240     1⁄120     1⁄96     1⁄48     1⁄24     1⁄16     1⁄12     1⁄4     1⁄2     1     2     3     4 Half farthing     1⁄9600     1⁄3840     1⁄1920     1⁄480     1⁄240     1⁄192     1⁄96     1⁄48     1⁄36     1⁄24     1⁄8     1⁄4     1⁄2     1     1+1⁄2     2 Third farthing     1⁄14400     1⁄5760     1⁄2880     1⁄720     1⁄360     1⁄288     1⁄144     1⁄72     1⁄48     1⁄36     1⁄12     1⁄6     1⁄3     2⁄3     1     1+1⁄3 Quarter farthing     1⁄19200     1⁄7680     1⁄3840     1⁄960     1⁄480     1⁄384     1⁄192     1⁄96     1⁄72     1⁄48     1⁄16     1⁄8     1⁄4     1⁄2     3⁄4     1 Visualisation of some British currency terms before decimalisation Slang and everyday usage Some pre-decimalisation coins or denominations became commonly known by colloquial and slang terms, perhaps the most well known being bob for a shilling, and quid for a pound. A farthing was a mag, a silver threepence was a joey and the later nickel-brass threepence was called a threepenny bit (/ˈθrʌpni/ or /ˈθrɛpni/ bit, i.e. thrup'ny or threp'ny bit – the apostrophe was pronounced on a scale from full "e" down to complete omission); a sixpence was a tanner, the two-shilling coin or florin was a two-bob bit. Bob is still used in phrases such as "earn/worth a bob or two",[41][better source needed] and "bob‐a‐job week". The two shillings and sixpence coin or half-crown was a half-dollar, also sometimes referred to as two and a kick. A value of two pence was universally pronounced /ˈtʌpəns/ tuppence, a usage which is still heard today, especially among older people. The unaccented suffix "-pence", pronounced /pəns/, was similarly appended to the other numbers up to twelve; thus "fourpence", "sixpence-three-farthings", "twelvepence-ha'penny", but "eighteen pence" would usually be said "one-and-six". Quid remains as popular slang for one or more pounds to this day in Britain in the form "a quid" and then "two quid", and so on. Similarly, in some parts of the country, bob continued to represent one-twentieth of a pound, that is five new pence, and two bob is 10p.[42] The introduction of decimal currency caused a new casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the suffix pee: e.g. "twenty-three pee" or, in the early years, "two-and-a-half pee" rather than the previous "tuppence-ha'penny". Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: "five pounds forty". A value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like this: "one pound and a penny", "three pounds and fourpence". The slang term "bit" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a "ten bob bit". Decimal denomination coins are generally described using the terms piece or coin, for example, "a fifty-pee piece", a "ten-pence coin". Monarch's profile All coins since the 17th century have featured a profile of the current monarch's head. The direction in which they face changes with each successive monarch, a pattern that began with the Stuarts, as shown in the table below: Facing left             Facing right     Cromwell 1653–1658[43]     Broad 1656 Oliver Cromwell coin.jpg         Charles II 1660–1685     Guinea 641642.jpg James II 1685–1688     James2coin.jpg         William and Mary 1689–1694 William III 1694–1702     William and Mary Guinea 612668.jpg Anne 1702–1714     Half-crown of Anne.jpg         George I 1714–1727     George I Quarter Guinea 641648.jpg George II 1727–1760     George II Guinea 722655.jpg         George III 1760–1820     Sovereign George III 1817 641656.jpg George IV 1820–1830     Sovereign George IV 1828 651295.jpg         William IV 1830–1837     William4coin.jpg Victoria 1837–1901     Sovereign Victoria 1842 662015.jpg         Edward VII 1901–1910     Matte proof 5 pound Edwards VII.jpg George V 1910–1936     1 penny 1927 george 5.jpg             Edward VIII 1936     EdwardVIIIcoin.jpg     (uncirculated issues) George VI 1936–1952     1937 George VI penny.jpg         Elizabeth II 1952–present     1953 half crown obverse.jpg For the Tudors and pre-Restoration Stuarts, both left- and right-facing portrait images were minted within the reign of a single monarch (left-facing images were more common). In the Middle Ages, portrait images tended to be full face. There was a small quirk in this alternating pattern when Edward VIII became king in January 1936 and was portrayed facing left, the same as his predecessor George V. This was because Edward thought his left side to be better than his right.[44] However, Edward VIII abdicated in December 1936 and his coins were never put into general circulation. When George VI came to the throne, he had his coins struck with him facing the left, as if Edward VIII's coins had faced right (as they should have done according to tradition). Thus, in a timeline of circulating British coins, George V and VI's coins both feature left-facing portraits, although they follow directly chronologically. Regal titles A 1937 George VI penny From a very early date, British coins have been inscribed with the name of the ruler of the kingdom in which they were produced, and a longer or shorter title, always in Latin; among the earliest distinctive English coins are the silver pennies of Offa of Mercia, which were inscribed with the legend OFFA REX "King Offa". As the legends became longer, words in the inscriptions were often abbreviated so that they could fit on the coin; identical legends have often been abbreviated in different ways depending upon the size and decoration of the coin. Inscriptions which go around the edge of the coin generally have started at the center of the top edge and proceeded in a clockwise direction. A very lengthy legend would be continued on the reverse side of the coin. All but Edward III and both Elizabeths use Latinised names (which would have been EDWARDUS and ELIZABETHA respectively). Examples of coinage legends Latin text     English text     Notes EDWARD DEI GRA REX ANGL Z FRANC D HYB(E)     Edward III, by the grace of God King of England and France, Lord of Ireland     EDWARD DEI GRA REX ANGL DNS HYB Z ACQ     Edward, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland and Aquitaine     Used after the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) when Edward III temporarily gave up his claim to the French throne. EDWARD DEI G REX ANG Z FRA DNS HYB Z ACT     Edward, by the grace of God King of England and France, Lord of Ireland and Aquitaine.     Used after Anglo-French relations broke down and Edward III resumed his claim. HENRICUS VII DEI GRATIA REX ANGLIÆ & FRANCIÆ     Henry VII by the Grace of God, King of England and France     France had been claimed by the English continuously since 1369. HENRICUS VIII DEI GRATIA REX ANGLIÆ & FRANCIÆ     Henry VIII by the Grace of God, King of England and France     The Arabic numeral 8 was also used instead of the Roman VIII. HENRICUS VIII DEI GRATIA ANGLIÆ FRANCIÆ & HIBERNIÆ REX     Henry VIII by the Grace of God, Of England, France and Ireland, King     Used after Henry VIII made Ireland a kingdom in 1541. The Arabic numeral 8 was also used instead of the Roman VIII. PHILIPPUS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA REX & REGINA     Philip and Mary by the Grace of God, King and Queen     The names of the realms were omitted from the coin for reasons of space. ELIZABETH DEI GRATIA ANGLIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REGINA     Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, of England, France, and Ireland, Queen     IACOBUS DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX     James, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King     James, King of Scotland, by succeeding to the English throne united the two kingdoms in his person; he dubbed the combination of the two kingdoms "Great Britain" (the name of the whole island) though they remained legislatively distinct for more than a century afterwards. CAROLUS DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX     Charles, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King     OLIVARIUS DEI GRATIA REIPUBLICÆ ANGLIÆ SCOTIÆ HIBERNIÆ & CETERORUM PROTECTOR     Oliver, by the Grace of God, of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, Ireland etc., Protector     Cromwell ruled as a monarch but did not claim the title of king. CAROLUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX     Charles II, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King     IACOBUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX     James II, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King     GULIELMUS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX ET REGINA     William and Mary by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King and Queen     The spouses William and Mary ruled jointly. GULIELMUS III DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX     William III by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King     William continued to rule alone after his wife's death. ANNA DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REGINA     Anne by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Queen     GEORGIUS DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR     George by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, of Brunswick and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire Archtreasurer and Elector     George I added the titles he already possessed as Elector of Hanover. He also added the title "Defender of the Faith", which had been borne by the English kings since Henry VIII, but which had previously only rarely appeared on coins. GEORGIUS II DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR     George II by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, of Brunswick and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire Archtreasurer and Elector     GEORGIUS III DEI GRATIA MAGNÆ BRITANNIÆ FRANCIÆ ET HIBERNIÆ REX FIDEI DEFENSOR BRUNSVICENSIS ET LUNEBURGENSIS DUX SACRI ROMANI IMPERII ARCHITHESAURARIUS ET ELECTOR     George III by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, of Brunswick and Lüneburg Duke, of the Holy Roman Empire Archtreasurer and Elector     GEORGIUS III DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR     George III, by the Grace of God, of the Britains King, Defender of the Faith     The Acts of Union united Great Britain and Ireland into a single kingdom, represented on the coinage by the Latin genitive plural Britanniarum ("of the Britains", often abbreviated BRITT). At the same time, the claim to the throne of France was dropped and other titles were omitted from the coinage. GEORGIUS IIII (IV) DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR     George IV, by the Grace of God, of the Britains King, Defender of the Faith     The Roman numeral "4" is represented by both IIII and IV in different issues. GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR     William IV, by the Grace of God, of the Britains King, Defender of the Faith     VICTORIA DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX     Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the Britains Queen, Defender of the Faith     VICTORIA DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX INDIÆ IMPERATRIX     Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the Britains Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India     Queen Victoria was granted the title "Empress of India" in 1876. EDWARDUS VII DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR     Edward VII, by the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India     Edward VII's coins added OMNIUM ("all") after "Britains" to imply a rule over the British overseas colonies as well as the United Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. GEORGIUS V DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR     George V, by the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India     GEORGIUS VI DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR INDIÆ IMPERATOR     George VI, by the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India     GEORGIUS VI DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REX FIDEI DEFENSOR     George VI, by the Grace of God, of all the Britains King, Defender of the Faith     The title "Emperor of India" was relinquished in 1948, after the independence of India and Pakistan. ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA BRITANNIARUM OMNIUM REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX     Elizabeth II, by the Grace of God, of all the Britains Queen, Defender of the Faith     ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA FIDEI DEFENSATRIX     Elizabeth II, by the Grace of God, Queen, Defender of the Faith     The "of all the Britains" was dropped from the coinage in 1954, and current coins do not name any realm. Coins in the colonies Some coins made for circulation in the British colonies are considered part of British coinage because they have no indication of what country it was minted for and they were made in the same style as contemporary coins circulating in the United Kingdom. A three halfpence (1+1⁄2 pence, 1/160 of a pound) coin was circulated mainly in the West Indies and Ceylon in the starting in 1834. Jamaicans referred to the coin as a "quatty".[45] The half farthing (1/8 of a penny, 1/1920 of a pound) coin was initially minted in 1828 for use in Ceylon, but was declared legal tender in the United Kingdom in 1842.[46] The third farthing (1/12 of a penny, 1/2880 of a pound) coin was minted for use in Malta, starting in 1827..[46] The quarter farthing (1/16 of a penny, 1/3840 of a pound) coin was minted for use in Ceylon starting in 1839.[46] Mottos In addition to the title, a Latin or French motto might be included, generally on the reverse side of the coin. These varied between denominations and issues; some were personal to the monarch, others were more general. Some of the mottos were:     POSUI DEUM ADIUTOREM MEUM "I have made God my helper". Coins of Henry VII, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I. Possibly refers to Psalm 52:7, Ecce homo qui non-posuit Deum adjutorem suum "Behold the man who did not make God his helper".     RUTILANS ROSA SINE SPINA "A dazzling rose without a thorn". Coins of Henry VIII and Edward VI. Initially on the unsuccessful and very rare Crown of the Rose of Henry VIII and continued on subsequent small gold coinage into the reign of Edward VI.     POSUIMUS DEUM ADIUTOREM NOSTRUM "We have made God our helper". Coins of Philip and Mary. The same as above, but with a plural subject.     FACIAM EOS IN GENTEM UNAM "I shall make them into one nation". Coins of James I, signifying his desire to unite the English and Scottish nations. Refers to Ezekiel 37:22 in the Vulgate Bible.     CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO "I reign with Christ as my protector". Coins of Charles I.     EXURGAT DEUS DISSIPENTUR INIMICI "May God rise up, may [his] enemies be scattered". Coins of Charles I, during the Civil War. Refers to Psalm 67:1 in the Vulgate Bible (Psalm 68 in English Bible numbering).     PAX QUÆRITUR BELLO "Peace is sought by war". Coins of the Protectorate; personal motto of Oliver Cromwell.     BRITANNIA "Britain". Reign of Charles II to George III. Found on pennies and smaller denominations.     HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. "Shamed be he who thinks ill of it." Sovereigns of George III. Motto of the Order of the Garter.     DECUS ET TUTAMEN. "A decoration and protection." Some pound coins of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and some crown coins including some of Victoria and George V. Refers to the inscribed edge as a protection against the clipping of precious metal, as well as being a complimentary reference to the monarch and the monarchy. Minting errors reaching circulation Coins with errors in the minting process that reach circulation are often seen as valuable items by coin collectors. In 1983, the Royal Mint mistakenly produced some two pence pieces with the old wording "New Pence" on the reverse (tails) side, when the design had been changed from 1982 to "Two Pence". In 2016, a batch of double-dated £1 coins was released into circulation. These coins had the main date on the obverse stating '2017', but the micro-engraving having '2016' on it. it is not known how many exist and are in circulation, but the amount is fewer than half a million. In June 2009, the Royal Mint estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 dateless 20 pence coins had entered circulation, the first undated British coin to enter circulation in more than 300 years. It resulted from the accidental combination of old and new face tooling in a production batch, creating what is known as a mule, following the 2008 redesign which moved the date from the reverse (tails) to the obverse (heads) side.[47] See also     iconMoney portal Numismatics portal flagUnited Kingdom portal     Banknotes of the pound sterling     List of British bank notes and coins     Mark (money)     Non-decimal currency     One hundred pounds (British coin)     Roman currency     Twenty pounds (British coin) References "New 12-sided pound coin to enter circulation in March". BBC News. 1 January 2017. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017. "How can I dispose of commemorative crowns? And why do some have a higher face value than others?". The Royal Mint Museum. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2019. "Mintage Figures". The Royal Mint. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. "Coins – Collector Gold & Silver Coins & Limited Edition Gifts". The Royal Mint. Archived from the original on 10 February 2005. "Llantrisant". Royal Mint. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2012. "In April 1967 it was announced that the new Royal Mint would be built at Llantrisant in South Wales." "National Museums of Scotland – Balance and scales (detail)". Archived from the original on 9 April 2009. The 1696 Recoinage (1696–1699) Archived 14 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Richard Kleer, University of Regina, The Literary Encyclopedia Newton and the Counterfeiter, Thomas Levenson, Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-22992-5 The Scottish Mint after the recoinage, 1709–1836 Archived 22 August 2009 at Wikiwix, Athol L Murray, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1999 Sir Isaac Newton and the Scottish recoinage, 1707–10 Archived 21 August 2009 at Wikiwix, Athol L Murray, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1997 On the Value of Gold and Silver in European Currencies and the Consequences on the World-wide Gold- and Silver-Trade Archived 28 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Sir Isaac Newton, 21 September 1717. By The King, A Proclamation Declaring the Rates at which Gold shall be current in Payments reproduced in the numismatic chronicle and journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, Vol V., April 1842 – January 1843 McVeigh, Karen (12 May 2006). "Why coppers are rising in value". The Times. Retrieved 19 June 2022. Corporate FAQs Archived 11 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine The Fifth Definitive Coinage Portrait First Edition Archived 3 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-03-03. "Royal Mint unveils coin designs". BBC News. 2 April 2008. Archived from the original on 25 June 2009. Retrieved 15 September 2009. New Coin Designs FAQ Archived 6 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Royal Mint "Birmingham MP's crusade to bring back Britannia on coins" Archived 8 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Birmingham Post, 9 February 2009 "Your Change is Changing". Bulletin. Royal Mint (107): 6. 2008. "[Stephen Raw said] "We couldn't have had post-modern designs like this 50 years ago – the public simply wouldn't have accepted them" "Wales short-changed by new coin designs" Archived 13 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Post (North Wales), 3 April 2008 Ironside, Virginia (6 April 2008). "I hate the new coins. My father must be turning in his grave". The Independent. Retrieved 6 May 2020. "Make Way for Britain's New Coin Designs". Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2008. "Cupro Nickel Replacement Programme". Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2014. "Treasury 'should foot coin change bill'". BBC News. 5 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2011. Lacey, Anna (22 June 2013). "A bad penny? New coins and nickel allergy". BBC Health Check. Archived from the original on 7 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013. "Royal Mint starts new £1 coin production". TheGuardian.com. 31 March 2016. "£1 Coin | the Royal Mint". "£2 Coin Designs and Specifications | the Royal Mint". "The Great British Coin Hunt 2018 – Quintessentially British a to Z Sterling Silver Coins". "Legal Tender Guidelines | the Royal Mint". "How the Royal Mint is Attempting to Redefine "Legal Tender" for Collector Coins". 27 March 2016. Barker, Simon (14 January 2020). "Are £5 Coins Legal Tender?". CostlyCoins. "The Queen's Beasts are brought to life in a new bullion coin range", Royal Mint Blog, 31 March 2016, archived from the original on 2 April 2016, retrieved 1 April 2016 "Foreign and Commonwealth Office country profiles: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands". fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Foreign and Commonwealth Office country profiles: British Antarctic Territory". fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Foreign and Commonwealth Office country profiles: Tristan da Cunha". fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 30 June 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Government of South Georgia & the South Sandwich Islands". Archived from the original on 12 November 2002. The British Antarctic Territory Currency Archived 19 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Antarctic Heritage Trust Quine, W. V. (1987). Quiddities: An Intermittently Philosophical Dictionary. Harvard University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780674042438. "Ask Oxford". Archived from the original on 29 March 2007. ""bob or two" – Google Search". David Jones (7 April 2008). "Two Bob Trouble". Blogspot. Coins with Cromwell's image were first minted in 1656 by Pierre Blondeau. "Rare Edward VIII coin showing profile of monarch's 'better side' goes on display". BT.com. Retrieved 13 October 2019. Chalmers, Robert (1893). A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 110. Retrieved 15 November 2014. "Fractional Farthings".     Bingham, John (29 June 2009). "Mix-up at Royal Mint creates dateless 20p pieces worth £50". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 July 2009. Retrieved 29 June 2009. External links     Clayton, Tony: Coins of England and Great Britain     Chard, Juliana: Common Names of British Coin Denominations     UK Coin Designs and Specifications from the Royal Mint's website     Coin Designs — Royal Mint competition designs     United Kingdom: Coins Issued and Used – list of all UK coins, with photos and descriptions     Old Money Converter – converts £sd to decimal currency     Old Money Converter 2 – converts decimal currency to £sd     vte Sterling coinage Decimal        1/2p 1p 2p 5p 10p 20p 50p £1 £2 Pre-decimal        Quarter farthing (1/16d) Third farthing (1/12d) Half farthing (1/8d) Farthing (1/4d) Halfpenny (1/2d) Penny (1d) Three halfpence (1+1/2d) Twopence (2d) Threepence (3d) Fourpence (4d) Sixpence (6d) Shilling (1/–) Fifteen pence (1/3d) Florin (2/–) Half crown (2/6d) Double florin (4/–) Crown (5/–) Quarter guinea (5/3d) Third guinea (7/–) Half sovereign (10/–) Half guinea (10/6d) Sovereign (£1) Guinea (£1/1/–) Double sovereign (£2) Two guineas 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    Business organisations British Bankers' Association British Chambers of Commerce Confederation of British Industry Co-operatives UK Federation of Small Businesses Industry trade groups Institute of Directors Make UK UK Payments Administration     Category Commons Categories:     Coins of the United KingdomCurrencies of British Overseas TerritoriesCurrencies of the Crown DependenciesCurrencies of the United KingdomPre-decimalisation coins of the United Kingdom 1887 Millennium:     2nd millennium Centuries:         18th century 19th century 20th century Decades:         1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 1900s Years:         1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1887 in topic Humanities Archaeology – Architecture – Art Film - Literature – Music - (jazz) By country Australia – Belgium – Brazil – Bulgaria – Canada – Denmark – France – Germany – Mexico – New Zealand – Norway – Philippines – Portugal – Russia – South Africa – Spain – Sweden – United Kingdom – United States – Venezuela Other topics Rail transport – Science – Sports Lists of leaders Sovereign states – State leaders – Territorial governors – Religious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Works category Works 1887 in various calendarsGregorian calendar    1887 MDCCCLXXXVII Ab urbe condita    2640 Armenian calendar    1336 ԹՎ ՌՅԼԶ Assyrian calendar    6637 Baháʼí calendar    43–44 Balinese saka calendar    1808–1809 Bengali calendar    1294 Berber calendar    2837 British Regnal year    50 Vict. 1 – 51 Vict. 1 Buddhist calendar    2431 Burmese calendar    1249 Byzantine calendar    7395–7396 Chinese calendar    丙戌年 (Fire Dog) 4583 or 4523     — to — 丁亥年 (Fire Pig) 4584 or 4524 Coptic calendar    1603–1604 Discordian calendar    3053 Ethiopian calendar    1879–1880 Hebrew calendar    5647–5648 Hindu calendars     - Vikram Samvat    1943–1944  - Shaka Samvat    1808–1809  - Kali Yuga    4987–4988 Holocene calendar    11887 Igbo calendar    887–888 Iranian calendar    1265–1266 Islamic calendar    1304–1305 Japanese calendar    Meiji 20 (明治20年) Javanese calendar    1816–1817 Julian calendar    Gregorian minus 12 days Korean calendar    4220 Minguo calendar    25 before ROC 民前25年 Nanakshahi calendar    419 Thai solar calendar    2429–2430 Tibetan calendar    阳火狗年 (male Fire-Dog) 2013 or 1632 or 860     — to — 阴火猪年 (female Fire-Pig) 2014 or 1633 or 861     Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1887. 1887 (MDCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1887th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 887th year of the 2nd millennium, the 87th year of the 19th century, and the 8th year of the 1880s decade. As of the start of 1887, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Contents     1 Events     2 Births     3 Deaths     4 References Events January–March January 11 – Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies treatment is defended in the Académie Nationale de Médecine, by Dr. Joseph Grancher. January 20     The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base.[1]     British emigrant ship Kapunda sinks after a collision off the coast of Brazil, killing 303 with only 16 survivors.[2] January 21     The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) is formed in the United States.     Brisbane receives a one-day rainfall of 465 millimetres (18.3 in) (a record for any Australian capital city). January 24 – Battle of Dogali: Abyssinian troops defeat the Italians. January 28     In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, the largest snowflakes on record are reported. They are 15 inches (38 cm) wide and 8 inches (20 cm) thick.     Construction work begins on the foundations of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France.[3] February 2 – The first Groundhog Day is observed in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania.[4] February 4 – The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, passed by the 49th United States Congress, is signed into law by President Grover Cleveland.[5] February 5 – The Giuseppe Verdi opera Otello premieres at La Scala, Milan. February 8 – The Dawes Act, or the General Allotment Act, is enacted in the United States.[6] February 23 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000 along the coast of the Mediterranean. February 26 – At the Sydney Cricket Ground, George Lohmann becomes the first bowler to take eight wickets, in a Test innings. March 3 – Anne Sullivan begins teaching Helen Keller.     March 3: Helen Keller and Sullivan.     March 7 – North Carolina State University is established, as North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.     March 13 – Chester Greenwood patents earmuffs in the United States. April–June     April 1 – The final of the first All-Ireland Hurling Championship is held.[7]     April 4 – Argonia, Kansas, elects Susanna M. Salter as the first female mayor in the United States.[8]     April 10 (Easter Sunday) – The Catholic University of America is founded in Washington, D.C.     April 20 – Occidental College is founded in Los Angeles, California.     April 21 – Schnaebele incident: A French/German border incident nearly leads to war between the two countries.[9]     May 3 – An earthquake hits Sonora, Mexico.     May 9 – Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show opens in London.     May 14 – The cornerstone of the new Stanford University, in northern California, is laid (the college opens in 1891).     May 25 – The Hells Canyon massacre begins: 34 Chinese gold miners are ambushed and murdered in Hells Canyon, Oregon, United States.[10]     June 8 – Herman Hollerith receives a U.S. patent for his punched card calculator.     June 18 – The Reinsurance Treaty is closed between Germany and Russia.     June 21         The British Empire celebrates Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, marking the 50th year of her reign.[11]         Zululand becomes a British colony.     June 23 – The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nation's first national park, Banff National Park.[12] June 23: Banff National Park     June 28 – Minot, North Dakota is incorporated as a city.     June 29 – The United Retail Federation is established in Brisbane, Australia. July–September     July – James Blyth operates the first working wind turbine at Marykirk, Scotland.[13][14]     July 1 – Construction of the iron structure of the Eiffel Tower starts in Paris, France.     July 6 – King Kalākaua of Hawai'i is forced by anti-monarchists to sign the 'Bayonet Constitution', stripping the Hawaiian monarchy of much of its authority, as well as disenfranchising most native Hawaiians, all Asians and the poor.     July 12 – Odense Boldklub, the Danish football team, is founded as the Odense Cricket Club.     July 19 – Dorr Eugene Felt receives the first U.S. patent for his comptometer.[15]     July 26         L. L. Zamenhof publishes "Unua Libro" (Dr. Esperanto's International Language), the first description of Esperanto, the constructed international auxiliary language.         Blackpool F.C. is created in England, U.K.     August – The earliest constituent of the U.S. National Institutes of Health is established at the Marine Hospital, Staten Island, as the Laboratory of Hygiene.     August 8 – Antonio Guzmán Blanco ends his term as President of Venezuela.     August 13 – Hibernian F.C. of Scotland defeats Preston North End F.C. of England to win the 'Championship of the World', after the two teams win the Association football Cup competitions in their respective countries.     September 5 – The Theatre Royal, Exeter, England, burns down, killing 186 people.     September 28 – The 1887 Yellow River flood begins in China, killing 900,000 to 2,000,000 people. July 26: Esperanto October–December     October 1 – The British Empire takes over Balochistan.     October 3 – Florida A&M University opens its doors in Tallahassee, Florida.     October 12 – Yamaha Corporation, the global musical instrument and audiovisual brand, is founded as Yamaha Organ Manufacturing in Hamamatsu, Japan.[16]     November         Results of the Michelson–Morley experiment are published, indicating that the speed of light is independent of motion.         Arthur Conan Doyle's detective character Sherlock Holmes makes his first appearance, in the novel A Study in Scarlet, published in Beeton's Christmas Annual.     November 3 – The Coimbra Academic Association, the students' union of the University of Coimbra in Portugal, is founded.     November 6 – The Association football club Celtic F.C. is formed in Glasgow, Scotland, by Irish Marist Brother Walfrid, to help alleviate poverty in the city's East End by raising money for his charity, the 'Poor Children's Dinner Table'.[17][18]     November 8 – Emile Berliner is granted a U.S. patent for the Berliner Gramophone.     November 10 – Louis Lingg, sentenced to be hanged for his alleged role in the Haymarket affair (a bombing in Chicago on May 4, 1886), kills himself by dynamite.     November 11 – August Spies, Albert Parsons, Adolph Fischer and George Engel are hanged for inciting riot and murder in the Haymarket affair.     November 13 – Bloody Sunday: Police in London clash with radical and Irish nationalist protesters.     December 5 – The International Bureau of Intellectual Property is established.     December 25 – Glenfiddich single malt Scotch whisky is first produced. Date unknown     Laos and Cambodia are added to French Indochina.     Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect on the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves (radio); this is an important step towards the understanding of the quantum nature of light.     Franz König publishes "Über freie Körper in den Gelenken" in the medical journal Deutsche Zeitschrift für Chirurgie, describing (and naming) the disease Osteochondritis dissecans for the first time.     Teachers College, later part of Columbia University, is founded.     The first English-language edition of Friedrich Engels' 1844 study of The Condition of the Working Class in England, translated by Florence Kelley, is published in New York City.     Publication in Barcelona of Enrique Gaspar's El anacronópete, the first work of fiction to feature a time machine.[19]     Publication begins of Futabatei Shimei's The Drifting Cloud (Ukigumo), the first modern novel in Japan.     The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn is founded.     Nagase Shoten (長瀬商店), predecessor of Japanese cosmetics and toiletry brand Kao Corporation, is founded in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, Japan.[citation needed]     Tokyo Fire Insurance, predecessor of Sompo Japan Nipponkoa Insurance, is founded.[20]     Global construction and real estate development company Skanska is founded in Malmö, Sweden.[21]     American financial services company A. G. Edwards is founded by General Albert Gallatin Edwards in St. Louis, Missouri.     Heyl & Patterson Inc., a pioneer in coal unloading equipment, is founded by Edmund W. Heyl and William J. Patterson in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.     The first battery rail car is used on the Royal Bavarian State Railways.[22] Births January–February Miklós Kállay Arthur Rubinstein Edelmiro Julián Farrell Joseph Bech Chico Marx     January 1         Wilhelm Canaris, head of German military intelligence in World War II (d. 1945)         Max Ritter von Müller, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1918)     January 3 – August Macke, German painter (d. 1914)[23]     January 10 – Robinson Jeffers, American poet (d. 1962)     January 13 – Jorge Chávez, pioneer Peruvian aviator (d. 1910)     January 17 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst, philologist (d. 1975)     January 19 – Alexander Woollcott, American intellectual (d. 1943)     January 21 – Maude Davis, oldest person in the world (d. 2002)     January 22 – Elmer Fowler Stone, American aviator, first United States Coast Guard aviator (d. 1936)     January 23         Miklós Kállay, 34th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1967)[24]         Dorothy Payne Whitney, American-born philanthropist, social activist (d. 1968)     January 28 – Arthur Rubinstein, Polish-born pianist and conductor (d. 1982)[25]     February 3 – Georg Trakl, Austrian poet (d. 1914)[26]     February 5 – Corneliu Dragalina, Romanian general (d. 1949)     February 6 – Josef Frings, Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1978)     February 10 – John Franklin Enders, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985)[27]     February 11 – Ernst Hanfstaengl, German-born pianist, U.S. politician (d. 1975)     February 12 – Edelmiro Julián Farrell, Argentine general, 28th President of Argentina (d. 1980)     February 17         Joseph Bech, Luxembourgish politician, 2-time Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1975)[28]         Leevi Madetoja, Finnish composer (d. 1947)[29]     February 20 – Vincent Massey, Governor General of Canada (d. 1967)[30]     February 21 – Korechika Anami, Japanese general (d. 1945) March–April Julian Huxley Marc Chagall Gustav Ludwig Hertz Erwin Schrödinger Giovanni Gronchi     March 4 – Violet MacMillan, American Broadway theatre actress (d. 1953)     March 5         Harry Turner, American professional football player (d. 1914)         Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian composer (d. 1959)[31]     March 11 – Raoul Walsh, American film director (d. 1980)     March 13 – Alexander Vandegrift, American general (d. 1973)     March 14         Sylvia Beach, American publisher in Paris (d. 1952)[32]         Charles Reisner, American silent actor, film director (d. 1962)     March 18 – Aurel Aldea, Romanian general and politician (d. 1949)     March 21 – Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal (d. 1908)     March 22 – Chico Marx, American comedian and actor (d. 1961)     March 23         Juan Gris, Spanish-born painter, graphic artist (d. 1927)[33]         Prince Felix Yusupov, Russian assassin of Rasputin (d. 1967)     March 24 – Roscoe Arbuckle, American actor, comedian, film director, and screenwriter (d. 1933)     March 25 – Chūichi Nagumo, Japanese admiral (d. 1944)     March 25 – Padre Pio, Italian Franciscan Capuchin, mystic and Catholic saint (d. 1968)     April 2 – Louise Schroeder, German politician (d. 1957)     April 3 – Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966)     April 10 – Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)     April 12 – Harold Lockwood, American film actor (d.1918)     April 15         Mike Brady, American golfer (d. 1972)         Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player (d. 1983)[34]     April 22 – Harald Bohr, Danish mathematician and footballer (d. 1951)[35]     April 26 – Kojo Tovalou Houénou, prominent African critic of the French colonial empire in Africa (d. 1936) May– June Saint-John Perse     May 2         Vernon Castle, British dancer (d. 1918)         Eddie Collins, American baseball player (d. 1951)     May 5 – Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1972)     May 11 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-born pianist (d. 1951)     May 15 – John H. Hoover, American admiral (d. 1970)     May 22 – Jim Thorpe, American athlete (d. 1953)     May 23 – C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, English historian (d. 1941)[36]     May 25 – Pio of Pietrelcina, Italian saint (d. 1968)     May 26 – Paul Lukas, Hungarian-born actor (d. 1971)     May 31 – Saint-John Perse, French diplomat, writer and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)[37]     June 3 – Carlo Michelstaedter, Italian philosopher (d. 1910)     June 4 – Tom Longboat, Canadian distance runner (d. 1949)     June 5 – Ruth Benedict, American anthropologist (d. 1948)     June 9 – Emilio Mola, Spanish Nationalist commander (d. 1937)     June 13 – André François-Poncet, French politician, diplomat (d. 1978)     June 22         Julian Huxley, British biologist (d. 1975)         Santiago Amat, Spanish sailor (d. 1982)     June 26 – Ganna Walska, Polish opera singer (d. 1984) July– August     July 1         Maria Isidia da Conceição, Brazilian supercentenarian         Morton Deyo, American admiral (d. 1973)     July 3 – Elith Pio, Danish actor (d. 1983)     July 6 – Annette Kellermann, Australian professional swimmer, vaudeville star, film actress, writer and business owner (d. 1975)     July 7 – Marc Chagall, Russian-born painter (d. 1985)[38]     July 9 – Samuel Eliot Morison, American historian (d. 1976)     July 11 – Nicolae Păiș, Romanian admiral (d. 1952)     July 14 – Curtis Shake, American jurist (d. 1978)     July 16 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player (d. 1951)     July 18 – Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian politician, traitor (d. 1945)     July 21 – Luis A. Eguiguren, Peruvian historian and politician (d. 1967)     July 22 – Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)     July 28 – Marcel Duchamp, French-born artist (d. 1968)[39]     July 29         Sigmund Romberg, Hungarian-born composer (d. 1951)         Mamoru Shigemitsu, Japanese diplomat and politician (d. 1957)     July 31 – Mitsuru Ushijima, Japanese general (d. 1945)     August 3         Rupert Brooke, British war poet (d. 1915)[40]         August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. ?)[41]     August 4 – Peter Bocage, American jazz musician (d. 1967)     August 6 – Oliver Wallace, English-born film composer (d. 1963)     August 12 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)     August 13 – Julius Freed, American inventor, banker (d. 1952)     August 17         Emperor Charles I of Austria (d. 1922)         Marcus Garvey, African American publisher, entrepreneur and Pan Africanist (d. 1940)[42]     August 22 – Walter Citrine, 1st Baron Citrine, British trade unionist (d. 1983)     August 24 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player (d. 1974)     August 27 – Julia Sanderson, American actress (d. 1975) September–October Avery Brundage Le Corbusier Chiang Kai-shek     September 1 – Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (d. 1961)[43]     September 3 – Frank Christian, American jazz musician (d. 1973)     September 5 – Irene Fenwick, American actress (d. 1936)     September 8 – Jacob L. Devers, American general (d. 1979)     September 9 – Alf Landon, American Republican politician, presidential candidate (d. 1987)     September 10 – Giovanni Gronchi, 3rd President of Italy (d. 1978)     September 12 – Yusif Vazir Chamanzaminli, Azerbaijani statesman, writer and claimed "core author" of novel Ali and Nino (d. in Gulag 1943)     September 13         Lancelot Holland, British admiral (d. 1941)         Leopold Ružička, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)         Frank Gray (researcher), Physicist and researcher, known for the Gray code (d. 1969)     September 16 – Nadia Boulanger, French composer and composition teacher (d. 1979)[44]     September 26 – William Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, British aviator, first airman to receive the Victoria Cross (d. 1915)     September 28 – Avery Brundage, American sports official (d. 1975)[45]     October 2 – Violet Jessop, Argentine-born British RMS Titanic survivor (d. 1971)     October 4 – Charles Alan Pownall, American admiral, 3rd Military Governor of Guam (d. 1975)     October 5 – René Cassin, French judge, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1976)     October 6 – Le Corbusier, Swiss architect (d. 1965)[46]     October 8 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-born actor (d. 1956)     October 13 – Jozef Tiso, Prime Minister of Slovakia (d. 1947)     October 14 – Ernest Pingoud, Finnish composer (d. 1942)     October 18 – Takashi Sakai, Japanese general (d. 1946)     October 20 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, Japanese prince (d. 1981)     October 22 – John Reed, American journalist (d. 1920)[47]     October 23 – Lothar Rendulic, Austrian-born German general (d. 1971)     October 24 – Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, Queen Consort of Spain (d. 1969)     October 28 – Herb Byrne, Australian rules footballer (d. 1959)     October 31 – Chiang Kai-shek, 1st President of the Republic of China (d. 1975) November - December Bernard Montgomery Boris Karloff Erich von Manstein     November 1 – L. S. Lowry, English painter (d. 1976)[48]     November 6 – Walter Johnson, American baseball player (d. 1946)     November 10 – Arnold Zweig, German writer (d. 1968)[49]     November 11         Walther Wever, German general, pre-World War II Luftwaffe commander (d. 1936)         Roland Young, English actor (d. 1953)     November 14 – Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, Portuguese painter (d. 1918)     November 15 – Georgia O'Keeffe, American painter (d. 1986)[50]     November 17 – Bernard Montgomery, British World War II commander (d. 1976)     November 19 – James B. Sumner, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)     November 23         Boris Karloff, British horror film actor (d. 1969)         Henry Moseley, English physicist (d. 1915)     November 24 – Erich von Manstein, German field marshal (d. 1973)     November 25 – Nikolai Vavilov, Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist and geneticist (d. 1943)[51]     November 27 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (d. 1946)     November 28         Jacobo Palm, Curaçao-born composer (d. 1982)         Ernst Röhm, German Nazi SA leader (d. 1934)     November 30 – Beatrice Kerr, Australian swimmer, diver, and aquatic performer (d. 1971)     December 3 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, former Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990)     December 6 – Lynn Fontanne, British-born actress (d. 1983)     December 12 – Kurt Atterberg, Swedish composer (d. 1974)     December 13 – Alvin Cullum York, American World War I hero (d. 1964)     December 16 – Adone Zoli, Italian politician, 35th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1960)     December 22 – Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (d. 1920)     December 25 – Conrad Hilton, American hotelier (d. 1979)     December 26 – Arthur Percival, British general (d. 1966) Deaths January–June     January 12 – Stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh, British politician (b. 1818)     February 19 – Eduard Douwes Dekker, Dutch writer (b. 1820)[52]     February 26 – Anandi Gopal Joshi, first Indian woman doctor (b. 1865)     February 27 – Alexander Borodin, Russian composer (b. 1833)[53]     March 4 – Catherine Huggins, British actor, singer, director and manager (b. 1821)     March 8 – Henry Ward Beecher, American clergyman, reformer (b. 1813)     March 24         Jean-Joseph Farre, French general and statesman (b. 1816)         Justin Holland, American musician, civil rights activist (b. 1819)         Ivan Kramskoi, Russian painter (b. 1837)     March 28 – Ditlev Gothard Monrad, Danish politician (b. 1811)[54]     April 10 – John T. Raymond, American actor (b. 1836)     April 19 – Henry Hotze, Swiss-American Confederate propagandist (b. 1833)     April 23 – John Ceiriog Hughes, Welsh poet (b. 1832)[55]     May 7 – C. F. W. Walther, German-American theologian (b. 1811)     May 8 – Aleksandr Ulyanov, Russian revolutionary, brother of V. I. Lenin (b. 1866)     May 14 – Lysander Spooner, American philosopher and abolitionist (b. 1808)     June 4 – William A. Wheeler, 19th Vice President of the United States (b. 1819)     June 10 – Richard Lindon, British inventor of the rugby ball, the India-rubber inflatable bladder and the brass hand pump for the same (b. 1816) July–December Gustav Kirchhoff     July 8 – John Wright Oakes, English landscape painter (b. 1820)     July 17 – Dorothea Dix, American social activist (b. 1802)     July 25 – John Taylor, American religious leader (b. 1808)     August 8 – Alexander William Doniphan, American lawyer, soldier (b. 1808)     August 16         Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (b. 1837)         Sir Julius von Haast, German-born New Zealand geologist (b. 1822)     August 19         Alvan Clark, American telescope manufacturer (b. 1804)         Spencer Fullerton Baird, American naturalist and museum curator (b. 1823)     August 20 – Jules Laforgue, French poet (b. 1860)[56]     September 12 – August von Werder, Prussian general (b. 1808)     October 12 – Dinah Craik, English novelist and poet (b. 1826)[57]     October 17 – Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist (b. 1824)     October 21 – Bernard Jauréguiberry, French admiral, statesman (b. 1815)     October 26 – Hugo von Kirchbach, Prussian general (d. 1809)     October 31 – Sir George Macfarren, British composer and musicologist (b. 1813)     November 2         Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano (b. 1820)[58]         Alfred Domett, 4th Premier of New Zealand (b. 1811)[59]     November 8 – Doc Holliday, American gambler, gunfighter (b. 1851)[60]     November 19 – Emma Lazarus, American poet (b. 1859)[61]     November 28 – Gustav Fechner, German experimental psychologist (b. 1801)     December 5 – Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons, British diplomat (b. 1817)     December 14 – William Garrow Lettsom, British diplomat, mineralogist and spectroscopist (b. 1805)     December 23 – Adolphus Frederick Alexander Woodford, British parson (b. 1821) Date unknown     Antoinette Nording, Swedish perfume entrepreneur (b. 1814) References United States Naval Institute (1930). Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute. The Institute. p. 406. "The Loss of the Kapunda: Details of the Disaster". Belfast Morning News. February 23, 1887. p. 5. Retrieved March 18, 2016. Gaston Tissandier (1889). The Eiffel Tower: A Description of the Monument, Its Construction, Its Machinery, Its Object, and Its Utility. With an Autographic Letter of M. Gustave Eiffel. Illustrated. Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington. p. 27. Dana Facaros; Michael Pauls (1982). New York & the Mid-Atlantic States. Regnery Gateway. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-89526-856-3. Serial set (no.0-3099). 1891. p. 47. Sister Mary Antonio Johnston (1948). Federal Relations with the Great Sioux Indians of South Dakota,1887-1933, with Particular Reference to Land Policy Under the Dawes Act. Catholic University of America Press. p. 41. Mike Cronin; William Murphy; Paul Rouse (2009). The Gaelic Athletic Association, 1884-2009. Irish Academic Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-7165-3028-2. Lewis Ford (1892). The Variety Book Containing Life Sketches and Reminiscences. Washington Press. p. 106. Charles Hitchcock Sherrill (1931). Bismarck & Mussolini. Houghton Mifflin. p. 97-101. Oregon Historical Society (2006). Oregon Historical Quarterly. Oregon Historical Society. p. 326. Royal.gov.uk Archived November 1, 2005, at the Wayback Machine "Parks Canada - This Week in History". March 18, 2004. Archived from the original on March 18, 2004. Price, Trevor J. (2004). "Blyth, James (1839–1906)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/100957. Retrieved April 16, 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Hardy, Chris (July 6, 2010). "Renewable energy and role of Marykirk's James Blyth". The Courier (Dundee). D. C. Thomson & Co. U.S. Patent No. 366,945, filed July 6, 1886; second patent granted October 11, 1887: U.S. Patent No. 371,496, filed March 12, 1887. "Brand and History - About Us - Yamaha Corporation". www.yamaha.com. Retrieved May 19, 2021. Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). Wherever Green Is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 250. ISBN 978-1-4039-6014-6. Wagg, Stephen (2002). British Football and Social Exclusion. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-7146-5217-7. Westcott, Kathryn (April 9, 2011). "HG Wells or Enrique Gaspar: Whose time machine was first?". BBC News. Retrieved April 9, 2011. "The Yasuda Fire and Marine Insurance Company, Limited History". Funding Universe. Retrieved May 19, 2021. "Our history". Skanska - Global corporate website. Retrieved October 19, 2020. Johnston, Ben (2010). "Battery Rail Vehicles". Retrieved May 19, 2021. Meseure, Anna; Macke, August (1993). August Macke, 1887-1914. Benedikt Taschen. p. 7. ISBN 978-3-8228-0551-0. Szy, Tibor (1966). Hungarians in America: A Biographical Directory of Professionals of Hungarian Origin in the Americas. Kossuth Foundation. p. 218. Opus. Warwick Publishing Group. 1999. p. 30. Trakl, Georg; Skelton, Robin (1994). Dark Seasons: A Selection of Poems. Broken Jaw Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-921411-22-2. "John F. Enders". Nobel Prize. Retrieved April 12, 2021. Official Journal of the European Communities: Debates of the European Parliament. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. March 1975. p. 2. Morris, Mark (1996). A Guide to 20th-century Composers. Methuen. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-413-45601-4. Bissell, Claude (December 15, 1981). The Young Vincent Massey. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4426-3371-1. Béhague, Gerard (1994). Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil's Musical Soul. Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-292-70823-5. Kellner, Bruce (1988). A Gertrude Stein Companion: Content with the Example. Greenwood Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-313-25078-1. Brion, Marcel (1958). Modern Painting; from Impressionism to Abstract Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 95. "Fritz Felix PIPES - Olympic Tennis | Austria". International Olympic Committee. June 14, 2016. Bochner, Salomon (1992). Collected Papers of Salomon Bochner. American Mathematical Society. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8218-7054-9. Ellis, Geoffrey (2007). "Cruttwell, Charles Robert Mowbray Fraser". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32655. Retrieved November 1, 2010. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) (subscription required) Bernard S. Schlessinger; June H. Schlessinger (1991). The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners, 1901-1990. Oryx Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-89774-599-4. Anthony Mason (July 5, 2004). Marc Chagall. Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8368-5649-1. Marcel Brion (1958). Modern Painting; from Impressionism to Abstract Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 94. John Lehmann (1980). Rupert Brooke: His Life and His Legend. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-297-77757-1. August Wesley - Born Glorious Marcus Garvey; Robert A. Hill (August 17, 1987). Marcus Garvey Life and Lessons: A Centennial Companion to the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. University of California Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-520-06265-8. John Flower (January 17, 2013). Historical Dictionary of French Literature. Scarecrow Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-8108-7945-4. Alan Kendall (1976). The Tender Tyrant, Nadia Boulanger: A Life Devoted to Music : a Biography. Macdonald and Jane's. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-356-08403-9. John Apostal Lucas (1980). The Modern Olympic Games. A. S. Barnes. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-498-02447-4. Juan Antonio Ramírez (2000). The Beehive Metaphor: From Gaudí to Le Corbusier. Reaktion Books. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-86189-056-6. New Times. Trud. September 1987. p. 28. Allen Andrews (1977). The Life of L. S. Lowry, 1887-1976. Jupiter Books. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-904041-60-6. Irene Harand (1937). His Struggle (an Answer to Hitler). Artcraft Press. p. 240. Britta Benke (2000). Georgia O'Keeffe, 1887-1986: Flowers in the Desert. Taschen. p. 5. ISBN 978-3-8228-5861-5. Sputnik. Novosti Printing House. 1997. p. 5. Frank Northen Magill (1958). Masterplots: Cyclopedia of world authors; seven hundred fifty three novelists, poets, playwrights from the world's fine literature. Salem Press. p. 777. Overture: The Magazine of the Baltimore Symphony. Baltimore Symphony Orchestra Association. 1979. p. 20. Jon Bartley Stewart (2009). Kierkegaard and His Danish Contemporaries: Philosophy, politics and social theory. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-7546-6872-5. David Gwenallt Jones. "Hughes, John (Ceiriog; 1832-1887), poet". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales. Retrieved November 2, 2020. St James Press; Anthony Levi (1992). Guide to French Literature: 1789 to the Present. St. James Press. p. 345. ISBN 978-1-55862-086-5. August Nemo; Dinah Craik (July 1, 2019). Essential Novelists - Dinah Craik: The Ideals of English Middle-class Life. Tacet Books. p. 3. ISBN 978-85-7777-325-1. Cecilia Jorgensen; Jens Jorgensen (2003). Chopin and the Swedish Nightingale: The Life and Times of Chopin and a Romance Unveiled 154 Years Later. Icons of Europe. p. 89. ISBN 978-2-9600385-0-7. Claudia Orange (December 21, 2015). The Story of a Treaty. Bridget Williams Books. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-927131-34-3. Jon Tuska; Vicki Piekarski; Paul J. Blanding (1984). The Frontier Experience: A Reader's Guide to the Life and Literature of the American West. McFarland. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-89950-118-5.     Emma Lazarus (1888). The Poems of Emma Lazarus. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 1. Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and 14 other Commonwealth realms.[fn 4] He acceded to the throne on 8 September 2022 upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II. He was the longest-serving heir apparent in British history and, at the age of 73, is the oldest person to ascend the British throne. Charles was born in Buckingham Palace during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI. Charles was three when his mother ascended the throne in 1952, making him the heir apparent. He was made Prince of Wales in 1958 and his investiture was held in 1969. He was educated at Cheam and Gordonstoun schools, as was his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Charles later spent six months at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After earning a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Cambridge, Charles served in the Air Force and Navy from 1971 to 1976. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer, with whom he had two sons, William and Harry. In 1996, the couple divorced after they had each engaged in well-publicised extramarital affairs. In 2005, Charles married his long-time partner, Camilla Parker Bowles. As Prince of Wales, Charles undertook official duties on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II. He founded the youth charity the Prince's Trust in 1976, sponsors the Prince's Charities, and is a patron, president, or a member of over 400 other charities and organisations. He has advocated for the conservation of historic buildings and the importance of architecture in society.[3] A critic of modernist architecture, Charles worked on the creation of Poundbury, an experimental new town based on his architectural tastes. He is also an author or co-author of over 20 books. An environmentalist, Charles supported organic farming and action to prevent climate change during his time as the manager of the Duchy of Cornwall estates, earning him awards and recognition from environmental groups.[4] He is also a prominent critic of the adoption of genetically modified food. Charles's support for homeopathy and other alternative medicine has been the subject of criticism. THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT IS ISSUED BY THE PRESS SECRETARY TO THE QUEEN Further details of The Queen's Golden Jubilee Weekend have been announced today, with celebrations ranging from street parties to a unique pageant along The Mall. The Jubilee Weekend, taking place 1-4 June, will comprise a four-day festival of events culminating in a procession in central London commemorating the past fifty years of the Queen's reign, and the cultural diversity achieved both within the UK and across the Commonwealth. Saturday, 1 June The Golden Jubilee celebrations will start on the evening of Saturday 1 June with a classical concert including major international stars in the gardens of Buckingham Palace, watched by an audience of 12,000 drawn by public ballot. It will also be seen by many thousands on large video screens specially erected in London and other towns and cities across the United Kingdom to enable as many people as possible to share in the celebrations. Sunday, 2 June This day will be more of a day of reflection focussed on Jubilee church services and bell-ringing across the nation and in the Commonwealth, where The Queen is also Head of State of 15 other countries apart from the United Kingdom. Monday, 3 June Monday will see celebration parties and bonfires. Communities will be united in festivity through the staging of garden and street parties as well as other celebrations, including the lighting of beacons and bonfires. The Queen's Golden Jubilee Weekend Trust, a charity, is working with the organisation Golden Jubilee Summer Party which, in partnership with local authorities, church groups, public bodies, broadcasters, youth organisations, business, charitable and other organisations from all parts of the community, will promote participation in the Golden Jubilee and a sense of pride and unity. At lunchtime on Monday, 3 June, and to coincide with a BBC programme of Music Live, it is hoped that church bells, gongs, and other forms of music making will be sounded to signal the start of the Festival celebrations. These will range from simple gatherings of friends to mass events in public parks and on village greens. In a replica of events at the last Golden Jubilee, that of Queen Victoria in 1887, a chain of beacons and bonfires will be lit across the UK from Lands End to John O'Groats and from Great Yarmouth to Holyhead, at the Arctic Circle and in Antartica as well as in the Commonwealth, as a climax to the day's festivities. The beacons will form a chain across the UK. The major informal festivities on Monday, 3 June start with a rock and pop concert in the gardens of Buckingham Palace in the evening, again watched by an audience of 12,000 drawn from the public and broadcast through screens nationwide as well as on television. Afterwards, The Queen will light a special beacon on the Mall outside the gates of Buckingham Palace. This will be followed by a spectacular "Son et Lumiere Fireworks" programme in the vicinity of Buckingham Palace. Tuesday, 4 June Tuesday, 4 June will start with a State Procession from Buckingham Palace to St Paul's Cathedral for a Thanksgiving Service. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh will use the Coronation Gold Coach to proceed to St Paul's. After the service at St Paul's and a lunch at The Guildhall hosted by the City, The Queen and Duke of Edinburgh will return to Horse Guards where they will watch a National Festival of processions down the Mall. The Mall Pageant will include: * a carnival theme * youth bands and performers * Commonwealth procession * commemoration of the Queen's fifty years with key personalities, achievers and stars of the reign * a flypast by the RAF and Concorde as The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace 20th century Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "19XX" redirects here. For the videogame, see 19XX: The War Against Destiny. For a timeline of 20th-century events, see Timeline of the 20th century. For other uses, see 20th century (disambiguation). Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century20th century21st century Timelines 19th century20th century21st century State leaders 19th century20th century21st century Decades 1900s1910s1920s1930s1940s 1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s Categories: Births – Deaths Establishments – Disestablishments vte The Blue Marble, Earth as seen from Apollo 17 in December 1972. The photograph was taken by LMP Harrison Schmitt. The second half of the 20th century saw humanity's first space exploration. The 20th (twentieth) century began on January 1, 1901 (MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 (MM).[1] The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: the sixth mass extinction, Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nuclear weapons, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism and decolonization, the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts, and technological advances. These reshaped the political and social structure of the globe. Additional themes include intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology; poverty reduction and rising standards of living, world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction;[2][3] and the beginning of the Digital Revolution. Automobiles, airplanes and the use of home appliances became common, as did video and audio recording. Great advances in power generation, communication, and medical technology allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life. The repercussions of the World Wars, the Cold War, and globalization crafted a world where people are more united than any previous time in human history, as exemplified by the establishment of international law, international aid, and the United Nations. The Marshall Plan—which spent $13 billion ($110 billion in 2021 U.S. dollars)[4] to rebuild the economies of post-war nations—launched "Pax Americana". Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union created enormous tensions around the world which manifested in various armed proxy regional conflicts and the omnipresent danger of nuclear proliferation. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the collapse of its European alliance was heralded by capitalists as the end of communism, though by the century's end roughly one in six people on Earth lived under communist rule, mostly in China which was rapidly rising as an economic and geopolitical power. It took over two hundred thousand years of modern human history and 6 million years of human evolution for the world's population to reach 1 billion in 1804.[5] During the 20th century, world population had reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927, and by late 2000, the global population had reached 6 billion, with over half in East, South and Southeast Asia.[6][7][8] Global literacy averaged 80%. Penicillin and other medical breakthroughs, combined with the World Health Organization's global vaccination campaigns, yielded unprecedented results, helping to eradicate smallpox and other diseases responsible for more human deaths than all wars and natural disasters combined; smallpox now only existed in labs.[9][10] Machines came to be used in all areas of production, feeding increasingly intricate supply chains that allowed mankind for the first time to be constrained not by how much it could produce, but by peoples' willingness to consume. Trade improvements greatly expanded upon the limited set of food-producing techniques used since the Neolithic period, multiplying the diversity of foods available and boosting the quality of human nutrition. Until the early 19th century, life expectancy from birth was about thirty in most populations; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70 or more years (three decades longer than a century earlier).[11] Overview Main article: 20th-century events See also: Timeline of the 20th century Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history. Chronological history The 20th (twentieth) century began on January 1, 1901,[1] and ended on December 31, 2000.[12] It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. Unlike most century years, the year 2000 was a leap year, and the second century leap year in the Gregorian calendar after 1600. The century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts. The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like nationalism, globalism, environmentalism, ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon. World powers and empires in 1914, just before the First World War. (The Austro-Hungarian flag should be shown instead of the Austrian Empire's one) Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Public health improvements led to global life expectancy increasing from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline.[13] The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a truly global economy by the end of the 20th century. Summary At the beginning of the period, the British Empire was the world's most powerful nation,[14] having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and up to 22 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state. Anachronous world map showing member states of the League of Nations, the first global international body of governance created to prevent war after World War I, during its 26-year interwar period history. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power and, along with Germany and Italy, formed the Axis powers. Japan's military expansionism in East Asia and the Pacific Ocean brought it into conflict with the United States, culminating in a surprise attack which drew the US into World War II. Ukraine, early days of the 1941 Nazi invasion. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people between 1941 and 1945,[15] almost half of all World War II deaths. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the East and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and France from the West. After the victory of the Allies in Europe, the war in Asia ended with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan by the US, the first nation to develop nuclear weapons and the only one to use them in warfare. In total, World War II left some 60 million people dead. The mushroom cloud of the detonation of Little Boy, the first nuclear attack in history, on 6 August 1945 over Hiroshima, igniting the nuclear age with the international security dominating thread of mutual assured destruction in the latter half of the 20th century. Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century. After the war, Germany was occupied and divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Western Europe was rebuilt with the aid of the American Marshall Plan, resulting in a major post-war economic boom, and many of the affected nations became close allies of the United States. With the Axis defeated and Britain and France rebuilding, the United States and the Soviet Union were left standing as the world's only superpowers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as their competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism proliferated in Europe, which became divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. They formed competing military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) which engaged in a decades-long standoff known as the Cold War. The period was marked by a new arms race as the USSR became the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, which were produced by both sides in sufficient numbers to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world—particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan—as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space exploration and the Internet. The international community grew in the second half of the century significantly due to a new wave of decolonization, particularly in Africa. Most of the newly independent states, were grouped together with many other so called developing countries. Developing countries gained attention, particularly due to rapid population growth, leading to a record world population of nearly 7 billion people by the end of the century. In the latter half of the century, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, globalization opened the door for several nations to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. The US's global military presence spread American culture around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry and Broadway, jazz, rock music, and pop music, fast food and hippy counterculture, hip-hop, house music, and disco, as well as street style, all of which came to be identified with the concepts of popular culture and youth culture.[16][17][18] After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, most of the communist governments it had supported around the world were dismantled—with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos—followed by awkward transitions into market economies. Nature of innovation and change Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, air conditioning, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. The quantity of goods consumed by the average person expanded massively. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life. Social change Martin Luther King Jr., an African American civil rights leader (Washington, August 1963) At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in most societies. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, movements for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. By the end of the 20th century, in many parts of the world, women had the same legal rights as men, and racism had come to be seen as unacceptable, a sentiment often backed up by legislation.[19] When the Republic of India was constituted, the disadvantaged classes of the caste system in India became entitled to affirmative action benefits in education, employment and government. Attitudes toward pre-marital sex changed rapidly in many societies during the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century. [20][21] Earth at the end of the 20th century Economic growth and technological progress had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states. The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were pressing global issues. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as the West Nile virus continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa. Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems pose a serious threat.[22] One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels.[23] This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions. World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.[24][25] Wars and politics Main articles: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919), Diplomatic history of World War I, International relations (1919–1939), Diplomatic history of World War II, Cold War, and International relations since 1989 Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923). The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million.[citation needed] Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs.[26] According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects."[27] It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945.[28] The Armenian, Syriac and Greek genocide were the systematic destruction, mass murder and expulsion of the Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks in the Ottoman Empire during World War I, spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).[29][30] Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914–1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia/USSR, the British Empire and the United States. At the time, it was said by many to be the "war to end all wars". During World War I, in the Russian Revolution of 1917, 300 years of Tsarist reign were ended and the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, established the world's first Communist state. The end of World War I saw the collapse of the central powers, the German Empire, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire into several independent sovereign states throughout Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Middle East. After gaining political rights in the United States and much of Europe in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new birth control techniques, women became more independent throughout the century. Industrial warfare greatly increased in its scale and complexity during the first half of the 20th century. Notable developments included chemical warfare, the introduction of military aviation and the widespread use of submarines. The introduction of nuclear warfare in the mid-20th century marked the definite transition to modern warfare. The Revolutions of 1917-1923 occurred during and World War I inspired by the Russian Revolution which saw many political changes in Europe and in Asia. The Great Depression in the 1930s led to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe. A violent civil war broke out in Spain in 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the Second Spanish Republic. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II, as the fascist armies bombed some Spanish territories. World War II (1939–1945) became the deadliest conflict in human history involving primarily the axis, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and the Empire of Japan against the allies, China, France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Many atrocities occurred, particularly the Holocaust killing approximately 11 million victims. It ended with the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. The two world wars led to efforts to increase international cooperation, notably through the founding of the League of Nations after World War I, and its successor, the United Nations, after World War II. The creation of Israel in 1948, a Jewish state in the Middle East, at the end of the British Mandate for Palestine, fueled many conflicts between Israelis and Palestinians in addition toregional conflicts. These were also influenced by the vast oil fields in many of the other countries of the predominantly Arab region. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, communism became a major force in global politics, notably in Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba, where communist parties gained near-absolute power. Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev aboard the USS Sequoia, June 19, 1973 The Cold War (1947–1989) involved an arms race and increasing competition between the two major players in the world: the Soviet Union and the United States. This competition included the development and improvement of nuclear weapons and space technology. This led to the proxy wars with the Western bloc, including wars in Korea (1950–1953) and Vietnam (1957–1975). The Soviet authorities caused the deaths of millions of their own citizens to eliminate domestic opposition.[31] More than 18 million people passed through the Gulag, with a further 6 million being exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[32] Nationalist movements in the Indian subcontinent led to the independence and partition of Jawaharlal Nehru-led India and Muhammad Ali Jinnah-led Pakistan, although would lead to conflicts between the two nations such as border and territorial disputes. After a long period of civil wars and conflicts with western powers, China's last imperial dynasty ended in 1912. The resulting republic was replaced, after another civil war, by the communist People's Republic of China in 1949. At the end of the 20th century, though still ruled by a communist party, China's economic system had largely transformed to capitalism. Mahatma Gandhi's nonviolence and Indian independence movement against the British Empire influenced many political movements around the world, including the civil rights movement in the United States, and freedom movements in South Africa against apartheid challenging racial segregation The end of colonialism led to the independence of many African and Asian countries. During the Cold War, many of these aligned with the United States, the USSR, or China for defense. Hong Kong, under British administration from 1842 to 1997, is one of the original Four Asian Tigers. Mao Zedong's radical policy of modernization leads to the Great Chinese Famine causing the death of tens of millions of Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962. It is thought to be the largest famine in human history.[33] The Vietnam War caused two million deaths, changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered global North-South relations.[34] The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused million of deaths and contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union along with complete political turmoil in Afghanistan[33] The revolutions of 1989 released Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet control. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia dissolved; the former having many states seceded and the latter violently over several years, into successor states, with many rife with ethnic nationalism. Meanwhile, East Germany and West Germany were reunified in 1990. The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, culminating in the deaths of hundreds of civilian protesters, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. Led mainly by students and intellectuals, the protests occurred in a year that saw the collapse of a number of communist governments around the world. European integration began in earnest in the 1950s, and eventually led to the European Union, a political and economic union that comprised 15 countries at the end of the 20th century. Culture and entertainment Main article: 20th century in literature I and the Village, 1911, by Marc Chagall, a modern painter. As the century began, Paris was the artistic capital of the world, where both French and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gathered. By the middle of the century New York City had become the artistic capital of the world. Theater, films, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects of life. As many films and much music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world. 1953 saw the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, an iconic figure of the century. Visual culture became more dominant not only in films but in comics and television as well. During the century a new skilled understanding of narrativist imagery was developed. Computer games and internet surfing became new and popular form of entertainment during the last 25 years of the century. In literature, science fiction, fantasy (with well-developed fictional worlds, rich in detail), and alternative history fiction gained popularity. Detective fiction gained popularity in the interwar period. In the United States in 1961 Grove Press published Tropic of Cancer a novel by Henry Miller redefining pornography and censorship in publishing in America. Music Main article: 20th-century music Elvis Presley in 1956, a leading figure of rock & roll and rockabilly. The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century. Igor Stravinsky revolutionized classical composition. In the 1920s, Arnold Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone technique, which became widely influential on 20th-century composers. In classical music, composition branched out into many completely new domains, including dodecaphony, aleatoric (chance) music, and minimalism. Tango was created in Argentina and became extremely popular in the rest of the Americas and Europe. Blues and jazz music became popularized during the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s in the United States. Bebop develops as a form of jazz in the 1940s. Country music develops in the 1920s and 1930s in the United States. Blues and country went on to influence rock and roll in the 1950s, which along with folk music, increased in popularity with the British Invasion of the mid-to-late 1960s. Rock soon branched into many different genres, including folk rock, heavy metal, punk rock, and alternative rock and became the dominant genre of popular music. This was challenged with the rise of hip hop in the 1980s and 1990s. Other genres such as house, techno, reggae, and soul all developed during the latter half of the century and went through various periods of popularity. Synthesizers began to be employed widely in music and crossed over into the mainstream with new wave music in the 1980s. Electronic instruments have been widely deployed in all manners of popular music and has led to the development of such genres as house, synth-pop, electronic dance music, and industrial. Film, television and theatre Charlie Chaplin in his 1921 film The Kid, with Jackie Coogan. See also: History of film Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905.[35] Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full-length feature film, The Jazz Singer, released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929. Animation was also developed in the 1920s, with the first full-length cel animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937. Computer-generated imagery was developed in the 1980s, with the first full-length CGI-animated film Toy Story released in 1995. Julie Andrews, Harry Belafonte, Humphrey Bogart, Marlon Brando, James Cagney, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Tom Cruise, James Dean, Robert De Niro, Harrison Ford, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, Audrey Hepburn, Katharine Hepburn, Bruce Lee, Marilyn Monroe, Paul Newman, Jack Nicholson, Al Pacino, Sidney Poitier, Meryl Streep, Elizabeth Taylor, James Stewart, Jane Fonda and John Wayne are among the most popular Hollywood stars of the 20th century. Madhubala, Jean-Paul Belmondo, Karel Roden, Sean Connery, Marcello Mastroianni, Salah Zulfikar, Marlene Dietrich, Brigitte Bardot, Omar Sharif, Catherine Deneuve, Alain Delon, Soad Hosny, Fernanda Montenegro, Sophie Marceau, Fatima Rushdi, Amitabh Bachchan, Jean Gabin, Toshiro Mifune, Shoukry Sarhan, Lars Mikkelsen, Sophia Loren, Youssef Wahbi, Claudia Cardinale, Klaus Kinski, Gérard Depardieu, Max von Sydow, Faten Hamama, Rutger Hauer and Toni Servillo are among the most popular movie stars of the 20th century. Sergei Eisenstein, D. W. Griffith, Cecil B. DeMille, Frank Capra, Howard Hawks, John Ford, Orson Welles, Martin Scorsese, John Huston, Alfred Hitchcock, Akira Kurosawa, Spike Lee, Ingmar Bergman, Federico Fellini, Walt Disney, Stanley Kubrick, Steven Spielberg, Ridley Scott, Woody Allen, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, William Friedkin, Ezz El-Dine Zulficar and George Lucas are among the most important and popular filmmakers of the 20th century. In theater, sometimes referred to as Broadway in New York City, playwrights such as Eugene O'Neill, Samuel Beckett, Edward Albee, Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams introduced innovative language and ideas to the idiom. In musical theater, figures such as Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lerner and Loewe, Mohammed Karim, and Irving Berlin had an enormous impact on both film and the culture in general. Modern dance is born in America as a 'rebellion' against centuries-old European ballet. Dancers and choreographers Alvin Ailey, Isadora Duncan, Vaslav Nijinsky, Ruth St. Denis, Mahmoud Reda, Martha Graham, José Limón, Doris Humphrey, Merce Cunningham, and Paul Taylor re-defined movement, struggling to bring it back to its 'natural' roots and along with Jazz, created a solely American art form. Alvin Ailey is credited with popularizing modern dance and revolutionizing African-American participation in 20th-century concert dance. His company gained the nickname "Cultural Ambassador to the World" because of its extensive international touring. Ailey's choreographic masterpiece Revelations is believed to be the best known and most often seen modern dance performance. See also: History of Television Video games Ralph Baer's Magnavox Odyssey, the first video game console, released in 1972. Main article: History of video games Video games—due to the great technological steps forward in computing since the second post-war period—are one of the new forms of entertainment that emerged in the 20th century alongside films. While already conceptualized in the 1940s–50s, video games only emerged as an industry during the 1970s, and then exploded into social and cultural phenomena such as the golden age of arcade video games, with notable releases such as Taito's Space Invaders, Atari's Asteroids, Nintendo's Donkey Kong, Namco's Pac-Man and Galaga, Konami's Frogger, Capcom's 1942 and Sega's Zaxxon,[36] the worldwide success of Nintendo's Super Mario Bros.[37] and the release in the 1990s of Sony PlayStation console, the first one to break the record of 100 million units sold, with Gran Turismo being the system's best selling video game.[38] Video game design becomes a discipline. Some game designers in this century stand out for their work, such as Shigeru Miyamoto, Hideo Kojima, Sid Meier and Will Wright. Art and architecture The Empire State Building is an iconic building of the 1930s. Main article: 20th-century art The art world experienced the development of new styles and explorations such as fauvism, expressionism, Dadaism, cubism, de stijl, surrealism, abstract expressionism, color field, pop art, minimal art, lyrical abstraction, and conceptual art. The modern art movement revolutionized art and culture and set the stage for both Modernism and its counterpart postmodern art as well as other contemporary art practices. Art Nouveau began as a form of architecture and design but fell out of fashion after World War I. The style was dynamic and inventive but unsuited to the depression of the Great War. In Europe, modern architecture departed from the decorated styles of the Victorian era. Streamlined forms inspired by machines became commonplace, enabled by developments in building materials and technologies. Before World War II, many European architects moved to the United States, where modern architecture continued to develop. The automobile increased the mobility of people in the Western countries in the early-to-mid-century, and in many other places by the end of the 20th century. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. Sport The popularity of sport increased considerably—both as an activity for all, and as entertainment, particularly on television. The modern Olympic Games, first held in 1896, grew to include tens of thousands of athletes in dozens of sports. The FIFA World Cup was first held in 1930, and was held every four years after World War II. Science Main article: 20th century in science See also: Big Science Mathematics The pioneer of computer science, Alan Turing Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation.[39] Computationally-intense results include the study of fractals[40] and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976.[41] Physics New areas of physics, like special relativity, general relativity, and quantum mechanics, were developed during the first half of the century. In the process, the internal structure of atoms came to be clearly understood, followed by the discovery of elementary particles. It was found that all the known forces can be traced to only four fundamental interactions. It was discovered further that two forces, electromagnetism and weak interaction, can be merged in the electroweak interaction, leaving only three different fundamental interactions. Discovery of nuclear reactions, in particular nuclear fusion, finally revealed the source of solar energy. Radiocarbon dating was invented, and became a powerful technique for determining the age of prehistoric animals and plants as well as historical objects. Astronomy A much better understanding of the evolution of the universe was achieved, its age (about 13.8 billion years) was determined, and the Big Bang theory on its origin was proposed and generally accepted. The age of the Solar System, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.[42] The planets of the Solar System and their moons were closely observed via numerous space probes. Pluto was discovered in 1930 on the edge of the solar system, although in the early 21st century, it was reclassified as a dwarf planet instead of a planet proper, leaving eight planets. No trace of life was discovered on any of the other planets orbiting the Sun (or elsewhere in the universe), although it remained undetermined whether some forms of primitive life might exist, or might have existed, somewhere in the Solar System. Extrasolar planets were observed for the first time. Agriculture Wheat yields greatly increased from the Green Revolution in the world's least developed countries. Norman Borlaug fathered the Green Revolution, the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s that increased agricultural production in parts of the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s, and is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. Biology Genetics was unanimously accepted and significantly developed. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by James Watson,[43][44] Francis Crick,[43][44] Rosalind Franklin[44] and Maurice Wilkins,[43][44] following by developing techniques which allow to read DNA sequences and culminating in starting the Human Genome Project (not finished in the 20th century) and cloning the first mammal in 1996. The role of sexual reproduction in evolution was understood, and bacterial conjugation was discovered. The convergence of various sciences for the formulation of the modern evolutionary synthesis (produced between 1936 and 1947), providing a widely accepted account of evolution. Medicine A stamp commemorating Alexander Fleming. His discovery of penicillin changed the world of medicine by introducing the age of antibiotics. Placebo-controlled, randomized, blinded clinical trials became a powerful tool for testing new medicines. Antibiotics drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases. A vaccine was developed for polio, ending a worldwide epidemic. Effective vaccines were also developed for a number of other serious infectious diseases, including influenza, diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), chickenpox, hepatitis A, and hepatitis B. Epidemiology and vaccination led to the eradication of the smallpox virus in humans. X-rays became a powerful diagnostic tool for a wide spectrum of diseases, from bone fractures to cancer. In the 1960s, computerized tomography was invented. Other important diagnostic tools developed were sonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Development of vitamins virtually eliminated scurvy and other vitamin-deficiency diseases from industrialized societies. New psychiatric drugs were developed. These include antipsychotics for treating hallucinations and delusions, and antidepressants for treating depression. The role of tobacco smoking in the causation of cancer and other diseases was proven during the 1950s (see British Doctors Study). New methods for cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy, were developed. As a result, cancer could often be cured or placed in remission. The development of blood typing and blood banking made blood transfusion safe and widely available. The invention and development of immunosuppressive drugs and tissue typing made organ and tissue transplantation a clinical reality. New methods for heart surgery were developed, including pacemakers and artificial hearts. Cocaine and heroin were widely illegalized after being found to be addictive and destructive. Psychoactive drugs such as LSD and MDMA were discovered and subsequently prohibited in many countries. Prohibition of drugs caused a growth in the black market drug industry, and expanded enforcement led to a larger prison population in some countries.[45] Contraceptive drugs were developed, which reduced population growth rates in industrialized countries, as well as decreased the taboo of premarital sex throughout many western countries. The development of medical insulin during the 1920s helped raise the life expectancy of diabetics to three times of what it had been earlier. Vaccines, hygiene and clean water improved health and decreased mortality rates, especially among infants and the young. Notable diseases An influenza pandemic, Spanish Flu, killed anywhere from 17 to 100 million people between 1918 and 1919. A new viral disease, called the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV, arose in Africa and subsequently killed millions of people throughout the world. HIV leads to a syndrome called Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or AIDS. Treatments for HIV remained inaccessible to many people living with AIDS and HIV in developing countries, and a cure has yet to be discovered. Because of increased life spans, the prevalence of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other diseases of old age increased slightly. Changes in food production, along with sedentary lifestyles due to labor-saving devices and the increase in home entertainment, contributed to an "epidemic" of obesity, at first in the rich countries, but by the end of the 20th century spreading to the developing world. Energy and the environment Oil field in California, 1938. The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 by Russian engineer F.N. Semyonov, on the Apsheron Peninsula north-east of Baku. Fossil fuels and nuclear power were the dominant forms of energy sources. Widespread use of petroleum in industry—both as a chemical precursor to plastics and as a fuel for the automobile and airplane—led to the geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The Middle East, home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in Japan's decision to go to war against the United States in 1941, and the oil cartel, OPEC, used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the Yom Kippur War in the 1970s). The increase in fossil fuel consumption also fueled a major scientific controversy over its effect on air pollution, global warming, and global climate change. Pesticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals accumulated in the environment, including in the bodies of humans and other animals. Population growth and worldwide deforestation diminished the quality of the environment. In the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate. Engineering and technology First flight of the Wright brothers' Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina; Orville piloting with Wilbur running at wingtip. One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, electronics, engineering, travel, medicine, and war. Basic home appliances including washing machines, clothes dryers, furnaces, exercise machines, dishwashers, refrigerators, freezers, electric stoves and vacuum cleaners became popular from the 1920s through the 1950s. Radios were popularized as a form of entertainment during the 1920s, followed by television during the 1950s. The first airplane, the Wright Flyer, was flown in 1903. With the engineering of the faster jet engine in the 1940s, mass air travel became commercially viable. The assembly line made mass production of the automobile viable. By the end of the 20th century, billions of people had automobiles for personal transportation. The combination of the automobile, motor boats and air travel allowed for unprecedented personal mobility. In western nations, motor vehicle accidents became the greatest cause of death for young people. However, expansion of divided highways reduced the death rate. The triode tube was invented. Air conditioning of buildings became common New materials, most notably stainless steel, Velcro, silicone, teflon, and plastics such as polystyrene, PVC, polyethylene, and nylon came into widespread use for many various applications. These materials typically have tremendous performance gains in strength, temperature, chemical resistance, or mechanical properties over those known prior to the 20th century. Aluminum became an inexpensive metal and became second only to iron in use. Thousands of chemicals were developed for industrial processing and home use. Digital computers came into use Space exploration Photo of American astronaut Buzz Aldrin during the first moonwalk in 1969, taken by Neil Armstrong. The relatively young aerospace engineering industries rapidly grew in the 66 years after the Wright brothers' first flight. The Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union gave a peaceful outlet to the political and military tensions of the Cold War, leading to the first human spaceflight with the Soviet Union's Vostok 1 mission in 1961, and man's first landing on another world—the Moon—with America's Apollo 11 mission in 1969. Later, the first space station was launched by the Soviet space program. The United States developed the first reusable spacecraft system with the Space Shuttle program, first launched in 1981. As the century ended, a permanent crewed presence in space was being founded with the ongoing construction of the International Space Station. In addition to human spaceflight, uncrewed space probes became a practical and relatively inexpensive form of exploration. The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Over time, a massive system of artificial satellites was placed into orbit around Earth. These satellites greatly advanced navigation, communications, military intelligence, geology, climate, and numerous other fields. Also, by the end of the 20th century, uncrewed probes had visited or flown by the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and various asteroids and comets, with Voyager 1 being the farthest manufactured object from Earth at 23,5 billion kilometers away from Earth as of 6 September 2022, and together with Voyager 2 both carrying The Voyager Golden Record containing sounds, music and greetings in 55 languages as well as 116 images of nature, human advancement, space and society. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, greatly expanded our understanding of the Universe and brought brilliant images to TV and computer screens around the world. The Global Positioning System, a series of satellites that allow land-based receivers to determine their exact location, was developed and deployed.[46] Religion See also: List of 20th-century religious leaders 1900s – A number of related revival movements mark the start of Pentecostalism. 1904 — Aleister Crowley dictates The Book of the Law, the foundational text of Thelema. 1922 – The Soviet Union establishes a doctrine of state atheism. 1930 — Wallace Fard Muhammad founds the Nation of Islam. The Seventh Lambeth Conference allows for the possibility of birth control within Anglicanism, the first example of a modern Christian church supporting such a position.[citation needed] 1940s — Wicca is formalized by Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente. 1950s — Sayyid Qutb articulates Qutbism, a violent variety of Islamism that would later become foundational to jihadist ideology. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi begins to teach Transcendental Meditation. 1953 — L. Ron Hubbard founds the Church of Scientology, which has a unique cosmology based on science fiction and his older system of Dianetics. 1956 — B. R. Ambedkar launches the Dalit Buddhist movement. 1960 – The charismatic movement starts within Anglicanism, quickly spreading to other Christian sects. 1962–65 – The Second Vatican Council is held, resulting in significant changes in the Catholic Church. 1970s — New Age beliefs and practices are popularized. 1979 – In Shia Islam, the Islamic Revolution establishes a theocratic state within Iran. 1988 — Al-Qaeda, a network of Islamic extremists, is founded among Arab members of the Afghan mujahideen. It engages in a number of terror attacks throughout the 1990s, leading up to the September 11 attacks in 2001. 1999 — Falun Gong, a Chinese new religious movement dating to the early 1990s, begins to be persecuted by the Chinese government. Economics The Great Depression was a worldwide economic slowdown that lasted throughout the early 1930s. The Soviet Union implemented a series of five-year plans for industrialization and economic development. Most countries abandoned the gold standard for their currency. The Bretton Woods system involved currencies being pegged to the United States dollar; after the system collapsed in 1971 most major currencies had a floating exchange rate. The 1970s energy crisis occurred when the Western world, particularly the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, faced substantial petroleum shortages as well as elevated prices. The two worst crises of this period were the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, when, respectively, the Yom Kippur War and the Iranian Revolution triggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports. See also icon Modern history portal 20th-century inventions Death rates in the 20th century Infectious disease in the 20th century Modern art Short twentieth century Timelines of modern history List of 20th-century women artists List of notable 20th-century writers List of 20th-century American writers by birth year List of battles 1901–2000 List of stories set in a future now past References  "Twentieth Century's Triumphant Entry". The New York Times. January 1, 1901. p. 1. Retrieved 2021-01-03.  Wilson, E.O., The Future of Life (2002) (ISBN 0-679-76811-4). See also: Leakey, Richard, The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, ISBN 0-385-46809-1  "The Sixth Extinction – The Most Recent Extinctions". Archived from the original on 2015-12-18.  Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 1, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.  "World Population to Hit Milestone With Birth of 7 Billionth Person". PBS NewsHour. 27 October 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2018.  "World population hits 6 billion". NBC News. 4 March 2004. Retrieved 11 February 2018.  American Museum of Natural History. "Human Population Through Time". YouTube. Retrieved 1 June 2022.  "Religions and babies | Hans Rosling" – via www.youtube.com.  "Commemorating Smallpox Eradication – a legacy of hope, for COVID-19 and other diseases". World Health Organization. 2020-05-08. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15.  Kritz, Fran (2019-09-19). "Russian Lab Explosion Raises Question: Should Smallpox Virus Be Kept Or Destroyed?". NPR. Retrieved 2022-01-15.  "Quiz: Population 7 Billion – Could We All Fit in One City?". 30 October 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2018.  "The 21st Century and the 3rd Millennium When Did They Begin?". United States Naval Observatory. Archived from the original on 2019-10-02. Retrieved 2013-06-07.  Pinker, Stephen (2011). The Better Angels of Our Nature. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02295-3.  Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02328-8.  Mark Harrison (2002). Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 167. ISBN 0-521-89424-7  Delaney, Tim. "Pop Culture: An Overview". Philosophy Now. Retrieved 12 September 2022.  Bell, P., R. (1996). ""Americanization": Political and cultural examples from the perspective of "Americanized" Australia" (PDF). American Studies. Retrieved 12 September 2022.  Malchow, Howard (2011). Special Relations: The Americanization of Britain?. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-804-77399-7.  Fleegler, Robert L. Theodore G. Bilbo and the Decline of Public Racism, 1938–1947 Archived 2009-02-06 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23 December 2014  Zadey, Siddhesh (2019-11-25). "Constitution Day: Do We Truly Know the 'Real' Ambedkar?". TheQuint. Retrieved 2021-07-30.  "Ambedkar and political reservation". The Indian Express. 2020-08-16. Retrieved 2021-07-30.  Smith, J.B.; et al. "Ch. 19. Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis". Extreme and Irreversible Effects. Sec 19.6. Archived from the original on 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2014-07-10., in IPCC TAR WG2 2001  IPCC AR5 WG1 2013, "Summary for Policymakers, Observed Changes in the Climate System", pp. 10–11: "Total radiative forcing is positive, and has led to an uptake of energy by the climate system. The largest contribution to total radiative forcing is caused by the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 since 1750." (p 11). "From 1750 to 2011, CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production have released 375 [345 to 405] GtC to the atmosphere, while deforestation and other land use change are estimated to have released 180 [100 to 260] GtC." (p. 10).  "World Population: Historical Estimates of World Population". United States Census Bureau. December 19, 2013. Retrieved 2015-01-09.  "World Population: Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950–2050". United States Census Bureau. December 19, 2013. Retrieved 2015-01-09.  Democide See various exclusions  Charles Tilly (2003). "The politics of collective violence" Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 0-521-53145-4.  Gary Rodger Weaver (1998). Culture, Communication, and Conflict. Simon & Schuster. p. 474. ISBN 0-536-00373-4  Suny 2015, pp. 245, 330.  Bozarslan, Duclert & Kévorkian 2015, p. 187.  Geoffrey A. Hosking (2001). "Russia and the Russians: a history". Harvard University Press. p. 469. ISBN 0-674-00473-6  "The Other Killing Machine". The New York Times. May 11, 2003  "China's great famine: 40 years later". British Medical Journal 1999;319:1619–1621 (December 18 )  Thee, Marek (1976). "The Indochina Wars: Great Power Involvement – Escalation and Disengagement". Journal of Peace Research. SAGE Publications. 13 (2): 117–129. doi:10.1177/002234337601300204. ISSN 1460-3578. JSTOR 423343. S2CID 110243986.  "You saw it here first: Pittsburgh's Nickelodeon introduced the moving picture theater to the masses in 1905". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 18 June 2005. Retrieved 11 February 2018.  Jason Whittaker (2004), The cyberspace handbook, Routledge, p. 122, ISBN 978-0-415-16835-9  Coates, James (May 18, 1993). "How Mario Conquered America". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on November 23, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2018.  "PlayStation 2 Breaks Record as the Fastest Computer Entertainment Platform to Reach Cumulative Shipment of 100 Million Units" (PDF) (Press release). Sony Computer Entertainment. 30 November 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2008.  Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A history of mathematics. Merzbach, Uta C., 1933–, Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. (2nd ed. [rev.] ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471543978. OCLC 23823042.  Devaney, Robert L. (1998). A first course in chaotic dynamical systems : theory and experiment (6. printing. ed.). Reading, Mass. [u.a.]: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-55406-9.  Kenneth Appel; Wolfgang Haken (26 July 1976). "Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. Contemporary Mathematics. 98. doi:10.1090/conm/098. ISBN 9780821851036. S2CID 8735627.  Thomson, Sir William (1862). "On the Age of the Sun's Heat". Macmillan's Magazine. 5: 288–293.  "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962". NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved November 5, 2011.  "James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin". Science History Institute. June 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.  Engel, Pamela (April 23, 2014). "Watch How Quickly The War On Drugs Changed America's Prison Population". Business Insider.  "Global Positioning System History". 2012-10-27. Retrieved 2018-02-07. Sources IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013), Stocker, T.F.; et al. (eds.), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group 1 (WG1) Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report (AR5), Cambridge University Press. Climate Change 2013 Working Group 1 website. IPCC TAR WG2 (2001). McCarthy, J. J.; Canziani, O. F.; Leary, N. A.; Dokken, D. J.; White, K. S. (eds.). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521807685. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019. (pb: 0521015006) Bozarslan, Hamit [in French]; Duclert, Vincent [in French]; Kévorkian, Raymond H. (2015). Comprendre le génocide des arméniens—1915 à nos jours [Understanding the Armenian genocide: 1915 to the present day] (in French). Tallandier [fr]. ISBN 979-10-210-0681-2. Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1. Further reading Brower, Daniel R. and Thomas Sanders. The World in the Twentieth Century (7th Ed, 2013) CBS News. People of the century. Simon and Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-87093-2 Grenville, J. A. S. A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994). online free Hallock, Stephanie A. The World in the 20th Century: A Thematic Approach (2012) Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online Pindyck, Robert S. "What we know and don’t know about climate change, and implications for policy." Environmental and Energy Policy and the Economy 2.1 (2021): 4–43. online Pollard, Sidney, ed. Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century (1990), 260 pp; global perspective online free Stearns, Peter, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History (2001) UNESCO (February 28, 2008). "The Twentieth Century". History of Humanity. Vol. VII. Routledge. p. 600. ISBN 978-0-415-09311-8. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to 20th century. Wikimedia Commons has media related to 20th century. The 20th Century Research Project (archived 26 February 2012) Slouching Towards Utopia: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century (archived 6 February 2012) Discovering Literature: 20th century at the British Library MillenniaCenturiesDecadesYears vte Decades and years 20th century 18th century ← 19th century ← ↔ → 21st century → 22nd century 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 vte Centuries and millennia Millennium Century BC (BCE) 4th 40th 39th 38th 37th 36th 35th 34th 33rd 32nd 31st 3rd 30th 29th 28th 27th 26th 25th 24th 23rd 22nd 21st 2nd 20th 19th 18th 17th 16th 15th 14th 13th 12th 11th 1st 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st AD (CE) 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 2nd 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 3rd 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th vte History of the 20th century EventsTimeline Topics Art theatreChristianityLiteratureMusic classicalPhilosophyScience 1910s1920s1930s1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s1990sSociety Lists State leaders 1901–19501951–2000EarthquakesLunar eclipsesSolar eclipsesVolcanic eruptions

  • Condition: In Excellent Condition
  • Denomination: Crown
  • Year of Issue: 2000
  • Number of Pieces: 1
  • Time Period: 2000s
  • Fineness: 0.925
  • Collection: 1918 Representation of the People Act
  • Features: Commemorative
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain
  • Colour: Silver

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