Arabic Unknown Gold Silver Coin Vintage Flea Market Find Old Islamic Mecca Medal

$0.02 1 Bid 5d 18h 58m 37s, $10.33 Shipping, 30-Day Returns, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: Top-Rated Seller lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (3,187) 99.7%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 266721681795 Arabic Unknown Gold Silver Coin Vintage Flea Market Find Old Islamic Mecca Medal. Unknown Coin I bought this coin as part of a Box of Coins from a Flea Market   I don't know a lot about it
It has a Islamic Mosque on one side and a palm tree and a boat on the other side It also has some foreign words The Size is 35mm and it weights just over 18 grams Comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder. Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake Souvenir Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! Click Here to Check out my other Interesting Coins
Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 1,000 Satisfied Customers
  I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL)  * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia  * Curaçao (NL)  * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia  * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) *  Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL)  * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL)  * Sint Maarten (NL)  * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland ** Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra
Islam Article Talk Read View source View history Tools This is a good article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation). Islam الِإسْلَام‎ al-'Islām The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site Type Universal religion Classification Abrahamic Scripture Quran Theology Monotheistic Language Classical Arabic Territory Muslim world Founder Muhammad Origin CE 610; 1413 years ago Jabal al-Nour, Hejaz, Arabia Separated from Arabian polytheism Number of followers c. 1.9 billion[1] (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the ummah) Part of a series on Islam Beliefs Oneness of God ProphetsRevealed Books AngelsDay of Resurrection Predestination Practices Profession of FaithPrayer AlmsgivingFastingPilgrimage TextsFoundations QuranSunnah (Hadith, Sirah) Tafsir (exegesis)Aqidah (creed)Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets")Mathnawi (Poems) Fiqh (jurisprudence)Sharia (law) History TimelineMuhammad Ahl al-BaytSahabahRashidun CaliphateImamateMedieval Islamic scienceSpread of IslamSuccession to Muhammad Culture and society AcademicsAnimalsArtAssociation footballCalendarChildrenCircumcisionDemographicsDenominations SunniShiaEconomicsEducationEthicsExorcismFeminismFestivalsFinanceLGBTMadrasaMoral teachingsMosqueMusicMysticismPhilosophyPoetryPoliticsProselytizingScienceSlaverySocial welfareWomen Related topics ApostasyCriticism MuhammadQuranHadith Other religionsIslamismViolence terrorismwarIslamophobiaJihad JihadismLaws of war Glossary  Islam portal vte Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: ۘالِإسْلَام, al-ʾIslām [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ⓘ, transl. "Submission [to the will of God]")[2][3][4] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.[5][6] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,[7] number approximately 1.9 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.[8][9] Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets, the most important being Adam (believed to be the first man), Noah (Nuh), Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus (Isa).[10] Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation.[11] Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah; from Hebrew: תּוֹרָה‎), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injeel (Gospel). These earlier revelations are also associated with Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded by Muslims as earlier versions of Islam.[12] They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims.[13] Islam teaches that God (Allah) is one and incomparable.[14] It states that there will be a "Final Judgment" wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (Jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (Jahannam).[15] The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (shahada); daily prayers (salah); almsgiving (zakat); fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.[16] Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment.[17][18] Prominent religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[19] The religion of Islam originated in Mecca about 610 CE.[20] Muslims believe this is when Muhammad began receiving revelation.[21] By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[21] Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.[22] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah),[23] and through conquests.[24][25] There are two major Islamic denominations: Sunni Islam (85–90%)[26] and Shia Islam (10–15%).[27][28][29] While Sunni–Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically.[30] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.[31][32] Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country;[33] 31% live in South Asia;[34] 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa.[35] Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe.[36][37] Due largely to a higher fertility rate than that of other religions, Islam is the world's fastest-growing major religious group, and if current trends hold, it could slightly surpass Christianity as the world's largest religion by the end of the 21st century.[38] Etymology See also: Muslims § Etymology In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission [to God]') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[39] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[40] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[41][42] Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[43] Articles of faith Main articles: Aqidah and Iman The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.[44] God Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul Turkey Main article: God in Islam The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[45][46] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[47] Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[i][48] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[49] He is viewed as a personal god[48] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[50] Angels A 16th century Siyer-i Nebi image of the angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad Main article: Angels in Islam Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[51] and hadith.[52] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[53][54][55] or 'fire' (nār).[56][57][58][59] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[60][61][62][63] Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.[64] Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[52] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[65] Scripture A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text Main articles: Quran, Wahy, and Islamic holy books See also: History of the Quran The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died.[66] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization.[67] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[48][68] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[69][70] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[71][72] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[73] Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[74][75][76][77] while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[68][78][79] Prophets Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith A 15th century[80] Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).[81] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[48] The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas Al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets). Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[82][83][84] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good", hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[85] Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[86][87] Resurrection and judgment The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where Islamic tradition says Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear on the Day of Judgment Main article: Islamic eschatology Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[88][89][90] On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals[91] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[92][93][94] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer");[iv] Divine predestination Main article: Predestination in Islam The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[95][96][97][98] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[99] Acts of worship Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (alms-giving), fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[16] In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[100] Declaration of faith Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah Main article: Shahada The shahadah[101] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[102] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[103][104] Prayer Main article: Salah See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[105][106][107][108] A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[109] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[110][111] Almsgiving A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco Main article: Zakat See also: Sadaqah Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[112] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[113] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[114] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[115] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[116] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[117][118] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[119] Fasting A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates. Main article: Fasting in Islam See also: Fasting during Ramadan In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[120] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[121] Pilgrimage Main articles: Hajj and Umrah See also: Holiest sites in Islam Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season The Islamic pilgrimage, called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwah, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[122][123][124] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil.[125] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[126][127] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[128] Supererogatory acts Muslim men reading the Quran See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr Al-Ikhlas 0:22 Sincerity is the Quran's 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy Problems playing this file? See media help. Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[129] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[130] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.[131] Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء  IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[132] Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[133] History Main article: History of Islam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Islamic history. See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632) Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also: Early social changes under Islam According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija.[134] In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel.[135] The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[74][75][136] During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[137] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[138][139] After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.[140] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[141] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[142][143] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[144] Early Islamic period (632–750) Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa Rashidun and Umayyad expansion Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[145] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[146] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars.[147][148][149][150][151] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,[152] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[153][154] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.[155] Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[156] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[157] Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[158][159] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[160][161][162] The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[163] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[164] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[165] The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[166] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[167] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.[165] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[168] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[165] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[169][170] Classical era (750–1258) Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200 Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[171] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.[172][173] At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[174][a] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[176] Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.[177] Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[178] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[179][180] This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[181][182][183][184][154] Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics.[185][186][187][188] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[189][190] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles.[191] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[192][193] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics.[194][195][196] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[197] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function.[198] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[199] Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[200] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[201] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[202][203] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[204][201] Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt[205] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[206] In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[207] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[208] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[209] The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[210] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[211] Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[212] Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[213] Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century) Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam Ghazan Khan, 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas[214] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[215] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[216] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[217] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][219] Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[220] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[221][222] Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate.[223] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[224] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model,[225] and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[226] After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[227] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[228] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[229] The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[230] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[231] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[232] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[233] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[234] Modern era (18th–20th centuries) Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty. Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[235] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,[235] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[236] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[237] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[238] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[239][240] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[240] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[241][242] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[243] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[244] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[245] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[246] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[247][248] The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[249] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[250] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[251] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[252] Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[253] The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[254] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[255] Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[256] Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America.[257] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[258] Contemporary era (20th century–present) Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[259][260] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[261] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[262] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[263] The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[264] In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[265][266] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[267] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[268] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[269] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[270] Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[271] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[272] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[273] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[274] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[275][276] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[277] The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[278] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[279] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[280][281] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[282] notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[283][284] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[285][286] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[287] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[288] Demographics Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[289] World percentage of Muslims by country As of 2015, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.[290][1][291] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[292] in 1990 it was 19.9%[35] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[38] The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.[29] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[293][294] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[295][296] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[297] followed by Bengalis[298][299] and Punjabis.[300] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[301][302] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[303] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[304] Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[305] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[306][307] According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[308] In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[309] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[310][311] By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[312] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[38] Main branches or denominations Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations See also: Shia–Sunni relations Sunni Main article: Sunni Islam The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[313][314] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community".[315] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[17][316] Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[317] Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[318] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[319] Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[320] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[321] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[321][322] Shia Main article: Shia Islam The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims. Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[323] According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, significant event that took place at Ghadir Khumm, during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca. At Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[324][325] Shias recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him.[326] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognise that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[327] Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[328][329] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[330] Muhakkima Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[331] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[332] An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam Other denominations The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[333] in India in 1889.[334][335][336] Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,[337] and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception.[338] Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[339] Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,[340] with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5%–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[341] Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith,[342] with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam.[343] The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition.[344] In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article "Islam is the Quran alone" in the magazine Al-Manār, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.[345] A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran, and founded the Quranist organization "United Submitters International".[346] Non-denominational Muslims Main article: Non-denominational Muslim Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[347][348] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[349][350][351] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[352] Mysticism Main article: Sufism See also: Sufi–Salafi relations The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[353][354][355][356] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism[357] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[358] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[359] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the bestselling poets in America.[360][361] Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.[362] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[363][362] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[364] Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[365] Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[366] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[172] Sufism influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[367][368][369] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[370][371] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[352][372] Law and jurisprudence Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[17] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[373][374] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[17] Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[375] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[373] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[373] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[373][374] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[376] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[377] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[374] Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[373][374] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[374] The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[253] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[374] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[374][378] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[374][378] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[379][380] Schools of jurisprudence Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world Main article: Madhhab A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili schools. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[381] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[382] Society Religious personages Main article: Ulama Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856) Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[383] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[384] Governance See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, and Jihad In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[385] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[386] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[387] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[388] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[389] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[390][391] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[392] Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".[393] Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection[394][395][396] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[397][398] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[393][394] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[397][398] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[399] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[398] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation is 868 CE.[400][401] Daily and family life See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam Islamic veils represent modesty. Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[402] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.[403][404][405] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[406] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[c][408] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[409] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[410] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[411] In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[412][413][414] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[415][416] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[417][418] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[419] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[420] After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[421] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[422] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[422] Male circumcision, called khitan,[423] is often practised in the Muslim world.[424][425] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[426] A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.[427] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[428] A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[429] Arts and culture Main article: Islamic culture See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural Muslims The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[430] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[431] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[432] Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[433][434] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[435] Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims.[436] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[437] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[438] The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[439] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[440] Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[441][442] 14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh 14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh   Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali   Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan   14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China 14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China   16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence 16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence   The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region   Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran Influences on other religions See also: Islam and Druze Some movements, such as the Druze,[443][444][445] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[446] The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[447][448] Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[449] Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[450] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[451] Criticism Main article: Criticism of Islam John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.[452] Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[453] Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [454] Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[455] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[456] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[456] Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[457] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[458] See also Glossary of Islam Index of Islam-related articles Islamic mythology Islamic studies Major religious groups Outline of Islam References Footnotes  "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[175]  "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[218]  Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[407] Quran and hadith  Quran 2:117  Quran 1:4;  Quran 6:31;  Quran 101:1 Citations  "Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world". 9 August 2017.  "Islam | Religion, Beliefs, Practices, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 9 May 2022.  "Definition of Islam | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 9 May 2022.  Haywood, John (2002). Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) (1st ed.). Spain: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 3.13. ISBN 0-7607-1975-6.  Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."  Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"  "Muslim." Lexico. UK: Oxford University Press. 2020.  "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050". Pew Research Center. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.  NW, 1615 L. St; Suite 800Washington; Inquiries, DC 20036USA202-419-4300 | Main202-857-8562 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media. "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 26 January 2023.  Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden: Brill. p. 177. ISBN 90-04-12726-7.  Bennett (2010), p. 101.  "Global Connections . Religion | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 9 May 2022.  Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-508240-1.  Campo (2009), p. 34, "Allah".  Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Eschatology". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.  "Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 3 May 2023.  "sharia". Lexico. Oxford University Pressurl-status=dead. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020.  Esposito (2002b), pp. 17, 111–112, 118.  Trofimov, Yaroslav. 2008. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine. Knopf. New York. ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8. p. 79.  Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6.  Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-8023-7. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.  Arnold (1896), pp. 125–258.  J. Kuiper, Matthew (2021). Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice. Edinburgh University Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781351510721.  Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.  Denny, Frederick. 2010. Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."  "Field Listing :: Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.  "Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.  Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 1. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."  Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference.  "Muslim Majority Countries 2021". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 25 July 2021.  The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. December 2012. "The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010." DC: Pew Research Center. Article.  Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050" (projections table). Pew Research Center.  Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2.  The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.  "Islam in Russia". Al Jazeera. Anadolu News Agency. 7 March 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2021.  "Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population", The National, 21 April 2018, retrieved 13 January 2019  Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050." Pew Research Center. p. 70 Article.  "Siin." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran.  Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8.  Esposito (2000), pp. 76–77.  Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.  Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969). Mohammedanism: an historical survey. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195002454. Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.  Beversluis, Joel, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328.  "Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Gimaret, D. "Tawḥīd". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454  Ali, Kecia; Leaman, Oliver (2008). Islam : the key concepts. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7. OCLC 123136939.  Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0. p. 209.  "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 18 December 2010.  Burge (2015), p. 23.  Burge (2015), p. 79.  "Nūr." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. – via Encyclopedia.com.  Hartner, W.; Tj Boer. "Nūr". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874  Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In McAuliffe (2003). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261  Campo, Juan E. "Nar". In Martin (2004).. – via Encyclopedia.com.  Fahd, T. "Nār". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846  Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In McAuliffe (2002). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156  McAuliffe (2003), p. 45  Burge (2015), pp. 97–99.  Esposito (2002b), pp. 26–28  Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In McAuliffe (n.d.).  MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642  Çakmak (2017), p. 140.  Burge (2015), p. 22.  Esposito (2004), pp. 17–18, 21.  Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.  Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021. "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation."  "Tafsīr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Esposito (2004), pp. 79–81.  Jones, Alan (1994). The Koran. London: Charles E. Tuttle Company. p. 1. ISBN 1842126091. Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.  Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 191. ISBN 0684825074. It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.  Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an 3. pp. 213, 216.  Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5  Peters (2003), p. 9  Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Teece (2003), pp. 12–13  Turner (2006), p. 42  "BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190". Bibliothèque nationale de France. Retrieved 7 September 2023.  Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, US. p. 225  Martin (2004), p. 666  J. Robson. "Hadith". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  D.W. Brown. "Sunna". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  al-Rahman, Aisha Abd, ed. 1990. Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69  Awliya'i, Mustafa. "The Four Books." In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.  Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar. "The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu'l-Arb'ah)." Ch 4 in The Qur'an and Hadith. Tanzania: Bilal Muslim Mission. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.  Glassé (2003), pp. 382–383, "Resurrection"  Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012), "Avicenna". doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."  Gardet, L. "Qiyama". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Esposito (2011), p. 130.  Smith (2006), p. 89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p. 565  Afsaruddin, Asma. "Garden". In McAuliffe (n.d.).  "Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.  "Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary)". 2002. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2020.  Cohen-Mor (2001), p. 4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."  Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate". In McAuliffe (n.d.).: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".  Gardet, L. "al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407  "Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr". Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel. BBC. Retrieved 13 November 2020.  ZAROUG, ABDULLAHI HASSAN (1985). "THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM [sic] IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE". Islamic Studies. 24 (2): 167–180. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 20847307.  Nasr (2003), pp. 3, 39, 85, 270–272.  Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and Religion 3(2):381–97.  Kasim, Husain. "Islam". In Salamone (2004), pp. 195–197.  Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003  Esposito (2002b), pp. 18, 19  Hedayetullah (2006), pp. 53–55  Kobeisy (2004), pp. 22–34  Momen (1987), p. 178  Mattson, Ingrid (2006). "Women, Islam, and Mosques". In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 615–629. ISBN 978-0-253-34687-2.  Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. 2010. "Masd̲j̲id." Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill. Retrieved 25 May 2020.  "Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy.  Ariff, Mohamed (1991). The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-981-3016-07-1.  Esposito (2010), p. 109-110:This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.  Ridgeon, Lloyd (2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. United Kingdom: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 258. ISBN 9780415297967. Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.  "A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world". The New Humanitarian. 1 June 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2023.  Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static. Taylor & Francis. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-415-77011-8.  Stefon (2010), p. 72.  Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 1-85941-729-9.  "Ramadan". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 16 August 2023.  Ramadanali (2006). Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan. United States: Tughra Books. p. 51. ISBN 9781597846110.  Goldschmidt & Davidson (2005), p. 48  Farah (1994), pp. 145–147  "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.  Peters, F.E. (2009). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4008-2548-6. Retrieved 7 October 2014.  Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-275-98733-6. Retrieved 26 August 2012.  Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (1 February 2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman Altamira. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. Retrieved 26 August 2012.  Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208. ISBN 0918720583.  Aboo Yahyaa (2013). Foundation of Tajweed (2 ed.). p. 1.  Stefon (2010), p. 42–43.  Nigosian (2004), p. 70.  Armstrong, Lyall (2016). The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam. Netherlands: Brill. p. 184. ISBN 9789004335523.  "alhamdulillah". Lexico. Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2021.  Esposito (2010), p. 6.  Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.  Rabah, Bilal B. Encyclopedia of Islam.  Ünal, Ali (2006). The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Tughra Books. pp. 1323–. ISBN 978-1-59784-000-2.  Holt, Lambton & Lewis (1977), p. 36.  Serjeant (1978), p. 4.  Peter Crawford (16 July 2013), The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam, Pen & Sword Books Limited, p. 83, ISBN 9781473828650.  Peters (2003), pp. 78–79, 194  Lapidus (2002), pp. 23–28  Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Melchert, Christopher (2020). "The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth". In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-1-83860-765-4.  Esposito (2010), p. 40.  Holt & Lewis (1977), p. 57  Hourani (2002), p. 22  Lapidus (2002), p. 32  Madelung (1996), p. 43  Ṭabāṭabāʼī (1979), pp. 30–50  Esposito (2010), p. 38.  Holt & Lewis (1977), p. 74  Gardet & Jomier (2012)  Holt & Lewis (1977), pp. 67–72.  Harney, John (3 January 2016). "How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ?". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 January 2016.  Waines (2003), p. 46.  Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012), p. 505.  Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59  Noel James Coulson (1964). History of Islamic Law. King Abdulaziz Public Library. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7486-0514-9. Retrieved 7 October 2014.  Houtsma, M.T.; Wensinck, A.J.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Gibb, H.A.R.; Heffening, W., eds. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Volume V: L—Moriscos (reprint ed.). Brill Publishers. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-90-04-09791-9.  Moshe Sharon, ed. (1986). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. BRILL. p. 264. ISBN 9789652640147.  Mamouri, Ali (8 January 2015). "Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?". Al-monitor. Retrieved 6 March 2022.  Blankinship (2008), p. 43.  Esposito (2010), p. 87.  Puchala, Donald (2003). Theory and History in International Relations. Routledge. p. 137.  Esposito (2010), p. 45.  Al-Biladhuri, Ahmad Ibn Jabir; Hitti, Philip (1969). Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan. AMS Press. p. 219.  Lapidus (2002), p. 56.  Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83.  Lapidus (2002), p. 86.  Schimmel, Annemarie. "Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Lapidus (2002), pp. 90, 91.  Blankinship (2008), pp. 38–39.  Omar Hamdan Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 ISBN 978-3447053495 pp. 291–292 (German)  Blankinship (2008), p. 50.  Esposito (2010), p. 88.  Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-907461-38-8.  Lapidus (2002), p. 160  Waines (2003), pp. 126–127  Holt & Lewis (1977), pp. 80, 92, 105  Holt, Lambton & Lewis (1977), pp. 661–663  Lapidus (2002), p. 56  Lewis (1993), p. 84  King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–55. doi:10.1086/353360. S2CID 144315162.  Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century." Pp. 351–99 in Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.  "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise" (PDF).  "The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world". TheGuardian.com. February 2010.  Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.  David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).  "Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)". sciencemuseum.org.uk. Archived from the original on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015.  Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–132. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837. S2CID 144509355.  Imamuddin, S.M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 978-90-04-06131-6.  Toomer, G. J. (December 1964). "Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik". Isis. 55 (4): 464. JSTOR 228328. Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.  Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Retrieved 24 September 2013.  Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 53–55. Retrieved 25 September 2008.  Koetsier, Teun (May 2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5): 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.  Katz, Victor J.; Barton, Bill (18 September 2007). "Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 66 (2): 185–201. doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7. S2CID 120363574.  Ahmed (2006), pp. 23, 42, 84  Young, Mark (1998). The Guinness Book of Records. Bantam. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-553-57895-9.  Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. ISBN 9780226070803. Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.  Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p.4  Rémi Brague, Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine  Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. "Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K. 2006, p. 304.  Holt, Peter Malcolm (2004). The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291. Pearson Longman. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-582-36931-3.  Levi, Scott Cameron; Sela, Ron, eds. (2010). Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources. Indiana University Press. p. 83.  Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)  Glubb, John Bagot. "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 September 2021.  Andreas Graeser Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme Walter de Gruyter 1975 ISBN 978-3-11-004673-1 p. 260  Arnold (1896), pp. 227–228.  "Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?". BBCnews. 10 May 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2022.  "Islam in China". BBC. Retrieved 10 August 2011.  Lipman, Jonathan Newman (1997). Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-295-97644-0.  "The Spread of Islam" (PDF). Retrieved 2 November 2013.  "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2010.  Adas, Michael, ed. (1993). Islamic and European Expansion. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 25.  Metcalf, Barbara (2009). Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 104.  Peacock (2019), p. 20–22.  Çakmak (2017), pp. 1425–1429.  Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 82. ISBN 9004103910.  Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. p. 292. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.  Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3.  Bulliet (2005), p. 497  Subtelny, Maria Eva (November 1988). "Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 20 (4): 479–505. doi:10.1017/S0020743800053861. S2CID 162411014. Retrieved 7 November 2016.  "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi". University of St Andrews. 1999. Retrieved 27 August 2023.  "Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi". University of St Andrews. 1999. Retrieved 29 December 2021.  Drews, Robert (August 2011). "Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648"" (PDF). Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization. Vanderbilt University.  Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321  Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), South Asia in World History, Oxford University Press, p. 75, ISBN 978-0-19-066137-3  Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 p. 540  Algar, Ayla Esen (1 January 1992). The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. University of California Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-520-07060-8. Retrieved 29 April 2020 – via Google Books.  "CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India". Iranica Online. Retrieved 6 October 2022.  Tucker, Ernest (1994). "Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered". Iranian Studies. 27 (1–4): 163–179. doi:10.1080/00210869408701825. JSTOR 4310891.  Tucker, Ernest (29 March 2006). "Nāder Shāh". Encyclopædia Iranica.  Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-91332-7 pp. 270–271  Esposito (2010), p. 150.  Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 6  Spevack, Aaron (2014). The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri. SUNY Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-1-4384-5371-2.  Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-521-83910-5 p. 50  Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 p. 260  Esposito (2010), p. 146.  "Graves desecrated in Mizdah". Libya Herald. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.  Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics Wipf and Stock Publishers 2015 ISBN 978-1-4982-0102-5 p. 177  Rubin, Barry M. (2000). Guide to Islamist Movements. M.E. Sharpe. p. 79. ISBN 0-7656-1747-1. Retrieved 28 June 2010.  Esposito (2010), p. 147.  Esposito (2010), p. 149.  Robert L. Canfield (2002). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5.  Sanyal, Usha (23 July 1998). "Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (3): 635–656. doi:10.1017/S0026749X98003059 – via Cambridge Core.  Lapidus (2002), pp. 358, 378–380, 624.  Buzpinar, Ş. Tufan (March 2007). "Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion". Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (2): 247–258. doi:10.1080/00263200601114091. JSTOR 4284539. S2CID 144461915.  Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0. Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.  "Political Islam: A movement in motion". Economist Magazine. 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.  Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Mecelle". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.  "New Turkey". Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 488. 29 June – 5 July 2000. Archived from the original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2010.  "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 26 December 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2013.  Haddad & Smith (2002), p. 271.  Zabel, Darcy (2006). Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora. Austria: Peter Lang. p. 5. ISBN 9780820481111.  Bulliet (2005), p. 722  "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". BBC News. 9 August 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011.  Slackman, Michael (23 December 2008). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 15 August 2011.  Kirkpatrick, David D. (3 December 2011). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 December 2011.  Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0. Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations.  G. Rabil, Robert (2014). Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism. Washington DC, US: Georgetown University Press. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-62616-116-0. Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,..  "Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper". The Guardian. 21 November 2014.  "Huge rally for Turkish secularism". BBC News. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.  Saleh, Heba (15 October 2011). "Tunisia moves against headscarves". BBC News. Retrieved 6 December 2011.  "Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit". The Economist. 28 June 2007. Retrieved 15 August 2011.  Bowering, Gerhard; Mirza, Mahan; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 59. ISBN 9780691134840.  "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. 18 October 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2013.  Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (5 January 2016). "Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2016.  Thames, Knox (6 January 2021). "Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda". Foreign Policy Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2022.  Perrin, Andrew (10 October 2003). "Weakness in numbers". Time. Retrieved 24 September 2013.  Beydoun, Khaled A. "For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured'". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2022.  Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-4422-0663-2.  Oliver Holmes (19 December 2016). "Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2017.  "Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty". Al Jazeera. 19 December 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2023.  "Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar". ohchr.org. 27 August 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2019.  Slackman, Michael (28 January 2007). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 August 2011.  Nigosian (2004), p. 41.  "Islamic televangelist; holy smoke". The Economist. Retrieved 5 February 2022.  Esposito (2010), p. 263.  V. Šisler: The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe p. 212  Esposito (2004), pp. 118–119, 179.  Rippin (2001), p. 288.  Adams, Charles J. (1983). "Maududi and the Islamic State". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). Voices of Resurgent Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–4. [Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.  Meisami, Sayeh (2013). "'Abdolkarim Soroush". Oxford Bibliographies. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2021.  Abdullah Saeed (2017). "Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam". In Phil Zuckerman; John R. Shook (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. p. 188. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12. ISBN 978-0-19-998845-7.(subscription required)  Nader Hashemi (2009). "Secularism". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5.(subscription required)  "Data taken from various sources, see description in link". Wikimedia Commons. 22 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.  "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". 27 January 2011.  Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group" (data analysis). Fact Tank. Pew Research Center.  David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.  Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 11.  Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-313-32825-1.  "Secrets of Islam". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 24 September 2013. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).  Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), pp. 15, 17.  Margaret Kleffner Nydell Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times, Intercultural Press, 2005, ISBN 1931930252, page xxiii, 14  Richard Eaton (8 September 2009). "Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal". In Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.). Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-1-4008-3138-8.  Meghna Guhathakurta; Willem van Schendel (30 April 2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0822353188. Retrieved 7 November 2016.  Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0..  "Explore All Countries – China". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 15 September 2009.  "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". Archived Content. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 24 September 2013.  "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. 23 December 2005. Retrieved 1 April 2010.  Hackett, Conrad (29 November 2017), "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe", Pew Research Center  "Conversion". The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith  "Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2016.  "The Changing Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.  "Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world". CNN. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2016.  "British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6". Women convert. Archived from the original on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2020.  "Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity". HuffPost. 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.  "Why do Western Women Convert?". Standpoint. 26 April 2010. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2016.  Lipka, Michael; Hackett, Conrad (6 April 2017). "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 21 November 2022.  "Sunni". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). "Sunni Islam". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki (1994). "Ahl as-Sunnah". Islam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 10. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 525–530.  Esposito (2003), pp. 275, 306  Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer Publishing, 30 June 2017 ISBN 978-3-319-52611-9 p.48  Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer Publishing 2018 ISBN 978-3-319-97355-5 p. 108  Esposito (1999), p. 280.  Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 page 8  Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M.E. Sharpe ISBN 9780765630049 p. 283  Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-253-22310-4 p. 170  Newman, Andrew J. Shiʿi. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 December 2021.  Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214. Retrieved 14 July 2023.  Campo 2009, pp. 257–258.  Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion. 83 (3): 599–623. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029. eISSN 1477-4585. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 24488178. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.  Kohlberg, Etan (1976). "From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 39 (3): 521–534. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00050989. S2CID 155070530. Retrieved 14 July 2023.  Tucker, Spencer C.; Priscilla Mary Roberts, eds. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 917. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2.  Wehrey, Frederic M. (2010). The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War. Rand Corporation. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8330-4788-5.  Newman, Andrew J. (2013). "Introduction". Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722. Edinburgh University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7486-7833-4. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2015.  Robert Brenton Betts (31 July 2013). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. Potomac Books. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1-61234-522-2. Retrieved 7 January 2015.  Hoffman, Valerie Jon (2012). The Essentials of Ibadi Islam. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780815650843.  "Who Are the Ahmadi?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2013.  Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8. Retrieved 29 March 2014. Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate  Campo (2009), p. 24  "Ahmadiyya Muslims". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. 20 January 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2013.  Esposito (2004), p. 11.  Dhume, Sadanand (1 December 2017). "Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 14 July 2018.  "BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org.  Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim Political Participation in Europe Edinburgh University Press 2013 ISBN 978-0-748-67753-5 page 255  John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution, PDF-Datei, See also Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi, consulted on 30 May 2017.  Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. John Wiley & Sons. 4 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x.  Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. 4 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x. ISSN 1749-8171.  Brown, Daniel W. (4 March 1999). Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–45, 68. ISBN 978-0-521-65394-7.  Juynboll, G. H. A. (1969). The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... Brill Archive. pp. 23–25.  "Why the name change?" (PDF). Submission Perspective. 57: 1. September 1989.  Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015. Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.  Pollack, Kenneth (2014). Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. Simon and Schuster. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-4767-3393-7. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims  Burns, Robert (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West. University Press of America. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7618-5560-6. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations  Tatari, Eren (2014). Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. BRILL. p. 111. ISBN 978-90-04-27226-2. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi  Lopez, Ralph (2008). Truth in the Age of Bushism. Lulu.com. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4348-9615-5. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."  "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.  Esposito (2003), p. 302  Malik & Hinnells (2006), p. 3  Turner (1998), p. 145  Trimingham (1998), p. 1  Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.  Aminrazavi, Mehdi. [2009] 2016. "Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Retrieved 25 May 2020.  Knysh, Alexander. 2015. Islam in Historical Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-34712-5. p. 214.  Haviland, Charles (30 September 2007). "The roar of Rumi – 800 years on". BBC News. Retrieved 10 August 2011.  "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". BBC. 1 September 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2011.  Chittick (2008), pp. 3–4, 11.  Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7914-1515-3. Retrieved 17 January 2015.  Peacock (2019), p. 24,77.  Cook, David (May 2015). "Mysticism in Sufi Islam". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51. ISBN 9780199340378. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2023.  "tariqa | Islam". Britannica.com. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 29 May 2015.  Bowker, John (2000). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7.  Sanyal, Usha (1998). "Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (3): 635–656. doi:10.1017/S0026749X98003059.  . "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah". In Esposito (2003). harvc: no authors in contributor list. (help) – via Oxford Reference.  Alvi, Farhat. "The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia" (PDF).  Johns, Anthony H (1995). "Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 26 (1): 169–183. doi:10.1017/S0022463400010560. JSTOR 20071709. S2CID 154870820.  Babou, Cheikh Anta (2007). "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal". International Journal of African Historical Studies. 40 (1): 184–186.  Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.  Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "Sharīʿah." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, edited by E. Shahin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.  Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2001). Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-8156-2908-5. Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."  Leaman (2006), p. 214.  Nigosian (2004), p. 116.  Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "Law. Modern Legal Reform." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  An-Na'im, Abdullahi A. (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. pp. 337–359. ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2.  Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696. S2CID 145681085.  Bharathi, K. S. 1998. Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers. p. 38.  Weiss (2002), pp. 3, 161.  "Imam". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 January 2023.  Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, Th.; DeWeese, D.; Gaborieau, M.; Denny, F. M.; Aubin, F.; Hunwick, J. O.; Mchugh, N. (2012) [1993]. "Walī". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.  Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment. p. 75.  Schacht, Joseph. "Riba". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).  Foster, John (1 December 2009). "How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance". BBC. Retrieved 13 February 2022.  Domat, Chloe (20 October 2020). "What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?". Global Finance magazine. Retrieved 13 February 2022.  Merchant, Brian (14 November 2013). "Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries". VICE. Retrieved 3 June 2019.  Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1.  Akgündüz, Ahmed; Öztürk, Said (2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9. Retrieved 7 October 2014.  Al-Jawzi, Ibn (2001). The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph. IUR Press. p. 130.  Firestone (1999), pp. 17–18.  Afsaruddin, Asma. "Jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.  Brockopp (2003), pp. 99–100  Esposito (2003), p. 93  Firestone (1999), p. 17.  Tyan, E. "D̲j̲ihād". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189  Habeck, Mary R. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale University Press. pp. 108–109, 118.  Sachedina (1998), pp. 105–106.  Nasr (2003), p. 72.  Fahd Salem Bahammam. Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam. Modern Guide. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-909322-99-8.  Curtis (2005), p. 164  Esposito (2002b), p. 111  Francesca, Ersilia. "Slaughter". In McAuliffe (n.d.).  De Sondy, Amanullah (28 January 2016). "The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2022.  Legge, James (1880). The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity. LONDON: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 111. Retrieved 28 June 2010. mohammedan.(Original from Harvard University)  "Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos?". Retrieved 7 March 2022.  Glassé, C (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. p. 158.  Zine, Jasmin; Babana-Hampton, Safoi; Mazid, Nergis; Bullock, Katherine; Chishti, Maliha. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 59. Retrieved 4 June 2020.  Esposito, John. "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2013.  Waines (2003), pp. 93–96  Esposito (2003), p. 339  Esposito (1998), p. 79  Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-85168-295-9.  Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.  Ratno Lukito. Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable. Routledge. p. 81.  "IslamWeb". IslamWeb. 7 February 2002. Retrieved 13 September 2011.  Eaton, Gai (2000). Remembering God: Reflections on Islam. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-946621-84-2.  "Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?". 14 Publications. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015.  Campo (2009), p. 106.  Nigosian (2004), p. 120.  "Khitān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020.  Anwer, Abdul Wahid; Samad, Lubna; Baig-Ansari, Naila; Iftikhar, Sundus (January 2017). "Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting". BioMed Research International. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. 2017: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2017/4957348. PMC 5282422. PMID 28194416.  "Islam: Circumcision of boys". Religion & ethics—Islam. Bbc.co.uk. 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2020.  Campo (2009), p. 136.  Mathijssen, Brenda; Venhorst, Claudia; Venbrux, Eric; Quartier, Thomas (2013). Changing European Death Ways. Austria: Lit. p. 265. ISBN 9783643900678.  Stefon (2010), p. 83.  Rahman, Rema (25 October 2011). "Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2022.  Melikian, Souren (4 November 2011). "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 November 2013.  Esposito (2010), p. 56.  Lawrence, Bruce (2021). Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit. United Kingdom: Wiley. p. xii. ISBN 9781405155144.  Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8.  Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. ISBN 9780198606536. OCLC 50238944.  Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.  T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195. 34 (195): 249–252. JSTOR 860736.  Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A history of African societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 6 August 2010.  Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). Indonesian Heritage-Architecture. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 981-3018-30-5.  "Islamic calendar". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.  Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9780195165203.  Aitchison, Cara; Hopkins, Peter E.; Mei-Po Kwan (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4094-8747-0. Retrieved 30 June 2013.  Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9781317441250. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.  De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...  Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3. Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.  R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5. As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.  D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7. In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.  Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 119 (3): 542. doi:10.2307/605981. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605981. LCCN 12032032. OCLC 47785421.  Bryer, David R. W. (1975). "The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)". Der Islam. 52 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239. ISSN 1613-0928. S2CID 162363556.  Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.  House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.  Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-214-0. pp. 27–28.  "St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.  Fahlbusch et al (2001), p. 759.  Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3 pp. 18–20  Reeves, Minou, and P. J. Stewart. 2003. Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. p. 93–96.  Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1. p. 53-54.  Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 18, 35. ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4.  Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5. Sources Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean (2006). Signs in the heavens. Vol. 2. Amana Publications. ISBN 1-59008-040-8. Arnold, Thomas (1896). The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8. Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003. ISBN 978-0-521-78058-2. Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-471-8. Bulliet, Richard (2005). The Earth and Its Peoples. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-42770-8. Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5. Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. Chittick, William C (2008). Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-78074-052-2. Retrieved 17 January 2015. Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513398-1. Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4. Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4. —, ed. (1999). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. —, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. — (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0. — (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. — (2005). Islam: The Straight Path (Revised 3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8. — (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3. — (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3.Lay summary Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8. Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0. — (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2. Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512580-1. Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7. Griffith, Ruth Marie; Savage, Barbara Dianne (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8370-5. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Smith, Jane I. (2002). Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira. Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5. Holt, P.M.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29136-1. Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8. Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (2000). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21946-4. Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8. Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012). The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam. ISBN 978-603-500-080-2. Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7. Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0453-3. Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0462-2. — (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285258-8. — (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7. — (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2. — (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5. — (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2. Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3. Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R. (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27408-1. Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. Nasr, Seyed Hossein (2003). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-067700-8. Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4. Peacock, A.C.S. (2019). Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108582124. ISBN 978-1-108-58212-4. S2CID 211657444. Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5. Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. October 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Overview. Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1. Serjeant, R.B. (1978). "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Cambridge University Press. 41: 1–42. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761. S2CID 161485671. Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-511915-2. Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2. Stefon, Matt, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0. Ṭabāṭabāʼī, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9. Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4. Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5. Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6. Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17458-9. Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53906-7. Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-85224-245-2. — (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12066-2. Encyclopedias and dictionaries Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islām". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387 Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 2. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5. Houtsma, M.T.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R., eds. (1913–1936). Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912. Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference Books. Thomson-Gale. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 2. Brill Academic Publishers. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3. Brill Academic Publishers. Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. Vol. 6 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8. JSTOR j.ctt1jd94wq. Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. Esposito, John, ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001 – via Oxford Reference. Esposito, John, ed. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8. Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1. Further reading Islam at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-359-67265-3). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid. Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6 Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). "Islam". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6. Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6. Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4. Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0. Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9. Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris. Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5. Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8. Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4. Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1. Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3. Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0. Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5. Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0. Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3. Schuon, Frithjof (1963). Understanding Islam (3rd ed.). Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0941532242. Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). "The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world". ResearchGate. Tausch, Arno (2023). Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism. SpringerBriefs in Political Science (1st ed.). Cham: Springer Nature. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2. ISBN 978-3-031-24853-5. S2CID 256852082. Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3. vte Islam topics Outline of Islam Beliefs God in Islam AllahTawhidMuhammad In IslamProphets of IslamAngelsRevelationQadarJudgement Day Five Pillars ShahadaSalahSawmZakatHajj HistoryLeaders Timeline of Islamic historySuccession to MuhammadEarly conquestsGolden AgeHistoriographySahabaAhl al-BaytShi'a ImamsCaliphates RashidunUmayyadAbbasidCórdobaFatimidAlmohadSokotoOttoman Religious texts QuranHadithTafsirSeerahStory of Prophets Denominations Sunni Ash'arism, Maturidism, Atharism and Mu'taziliSufiSalafiShia Twelver Shi'ismIsma'ilismAlawitesAlevism Bektashi AlevismZaydismIbadiNation of IslamAhmadiyya LahoriQuranismNon-denominational LifeCulture AnimalsArtAssociation footballCalendarChildrenClothingFlagsHolidaysMosquesMadrasasMoral teachingsMusicPhilosophyPolitical aspectsQurbaniScienceSocial welfareWomenLGBTIslam by country LawJurisprudence Economics BankingEconomic historySukukTakafulMurabahaRiba Hygiene GhuslMiswakNajisTayammumToiletWudu FamilyMarriageSex HayaMarriage contractMahrMahramNikahNikah mut'ahZina Other aspects BalighCleanlinessCriminalDhabiĥaDhimmiDivorceDietEthicsEtiquetteGamblingGender segregationHonorificsHududInheritanceJizyaLeadershipMa malakat aymanukumMilitary POWsSlaverySources of lawTheological kalamSchools of islamic jurisprudence  Islamic studies Arts ArabesqueArchitectureCalligraphyCarpetsGardensGeometric patternsMusicPottery Medieval science Alchemy and chemistryAstronomyCosmologyGeography and cartographyMathematicsMedicineOphthalmologyPhysics Philosophy EarlyContemporaryEschatologyTheological Other areas AstrologyCreationism (evolution)FeminismInventionsLiberalism and progressivismLiterature poetryPsychologyShu'ubiyyaConversion to mosques  Other Other religions Christianity MormonismProtestantismHinduismJainismJudaismSikhism Apostasy Apostasy in Islam by countryEx-MuslimsList of former MuslimsList of ex-Muslim organisations Related topics Criticism of Islam MuhammadQuranCultural MuslimIslamism CriticismPost-IslamismQutbismIslamophobia IncidentsIslamic terrorismIslamic view of miraclesDomestic violenceNursingPersecution of MuslimsQuran and miraclesSymbolism  Islam portal Category vte Religion Religious groups and denominations Western Abrahamic Judaism Orthodox Haredi HasidicModern ZionistConservativeReformKaraiteHaymanotReconstructionistRenewalHumanisticlist Christianity Catholicism LatinEasternEastern Orthodoxy ChurchOriental OrthodoxyNestorianism AncientAssyrianProto-Protestantism Hussites/MoraviansWaldensiansProtestantism AdventismAnabaptism AmishBrethrenHutteritesMennonitesSchwenkfelder ChurchAnglicanismBaptistsCalvinism CongregationalismPresbyterianismReformedCharismatic Christianity PentecostalCharismaticNeo-charismaticEvangelicalismIrvingismLutheranismMethodism HolinessNondenominationalPlymouth BrethrenQuakerismRestorationismEsotericIndependent CatholicismJudaizersNontrinitarianism Bible Students/Jehovah's WitnessesBritish IsraelismChristadelphiansMormonismOneness PentecostalismSpiritualSwedenborgianismTolstoyanUnitarianismlist Islam Sunni Ash'arismMaturidismAtharismSalafism WahhabismModernist SalafismShia Twelver Shi'ismZaydismIsma'ilismAlawisSufismKhawarij IbadismAlevismAhmadiMahdawi movementQuranismMilah AbrahamNon-denominationallist Other Ali-IllahismBábismBaháʼíDruzeMandaeismRastafariSamaritanism Iranian ZoroastrianismYazidismYarsanismAssianism/UatsdinRoshani Eastern East Asian Chinese Chinese folk religionConfucianismLuoismNuoSalvationist XiantiandaoYiguandaoTaoism Folk TaoismYao Taoism Japanese Shinto listShugendōTenrikyoRyukyuan Korean Korean shamanismCheondoismJeungsanism Vietnamese Vietnamese folk religionĐạo MẫuCaodaismHoahaoismĐạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương Indian Hinduism Vaishnavism KrishnaismSri VaishnavismBrahma SampradayaNimbarka SampradayaPushtimargMahanubhavaRamanandiWarkariSwaminarayanShaivism Shaiva SiddhantaGanapatyaKashmiriKapalikaKaumaramLingayatismNathBalineseShaktismSmartismSauraismŚrautaSant MatNeo-Hinduismlist Buddhism TheravadaMahayana Chan/Zen/ThiềnAmidismNichirenVajrayana TibetanNeo-Buddhismlist Other AyyavazhiKalashJainism DigambaraŚvētāmbaraSarnaismKirat MundhumSrilankan VeddaRavidassiaSikhism KhalsaSects Ethnic Altaic Turko-Mongolic BurkhanismTengrismVattisen YalyTungusic EvenkiManchu Austroasiatic Sarnaism Austronesian Batak ParmalimDayak KaharinganTraditional Sabahan religionsIndonesian Aliran KepercayaanKejawènKapitayanKaro PemenaMalaysianPhilippine Dayawism TagalogPolynesian HawaiianMāoriSumbese MarapuSundanese Wiwitan Native American AbenakiAnishinaabeBlackfootCalifornian MiwokOhlonePomoCherokeeChiloteChoctawCreekGuaraniHaidaHo-ChunkHopiIroquois LonghouseSenecaWyandotJivaroanKwakwakaʼwakwLakotaLenapeMapucheMesoamerican AztecMayaOlmecPurépechaMidewiwinMuiscaNative American ChurchNavajoNuu-chah-nulthPawneeTsimshianUteZuni Tai and Miao AhomHmongismMoSatsana Phi Tibeto-Burmese BonBurmeseBenzhuismBimoismBathouismBongthingismDongbaDonyi-PoloHerakaKiratismQiangSanamahism Traditional African North African Berber Guanche church Sub-Saharan African AkambaAkanBalubaBantu KongoZuluBushongoDinkaDogonEfikFon and EweIkLotukoLoziLugbaraMaasaiMbutiOdinalaSanSererTumbukaUrhoboWaaqeffannaYoruba Ifá Diasporic: Candomblé BantuJejéKetuComfaConvinceEspiritismoKuminaObeahPaloQuimbandaSanteríaTambor de MinaTrinidad OrishaUmbandaVodouVoodooWinti Other ethnic Aboriginal AustralianInuitPapuanSiberian New religious movements Syncretic BrahmoismFalun GongJapaneseMeivazhiModekngeiNew AcropolisNew AgeNew ThoughtRajneeshRastafariSant Mat Radha SoamiSpiritualismSubudTensegrityThelemaTheosophy Neo-TheosophyAgni YogaTranscendental MeditationUnitarian UniversalismWhite Brotherhood Modern paganism African GodianismArmenianBaltic DievturībaRomuvaCaucasian AbkhazCircassianCeltic DruidryGermanicHellenism (modern religion)Italo-RomanNeoshamanismOssetianPolytheistic reconstructionismRomanianSlavicUralic EstonianModern Finnish paganismHungarianMari religionErzyan native religionSámiUdmurtWiccaZalmoxianism list De novo AnthroposophyDiscordianismEckankarFourth WayGoddessJediismSatanismScientologyUFO religion Raëlism Historical religions Prehistoric PaleolithicAinuArabianArmenianBaltic LatvianLithuanianOld PrussianBasqueCeltic DruidismIrishCook IslandsDravidianEgyptian AtenismEtruscanFinnishFuegian Selk'namGeorgianGermanic Anglo-SaxonContinentalFrankish paganismNorseGreek GnosticismGreco-BuddhismHermeticismMysteriesOrphismGuancheHarappanHittiteHungarianHurrianIncaJamaican MaroonManichaeism MazdakismMelanesianMesopotamian BabylonianSumerianMicronesian Nauruan Indigenous religionOlmecPaleo-Balkan AlbanianDacianIllyrianThracianProto-Indo-Iranian IranianVedicRapa NuiRoman Cult of Magna MaterGallo-RomanImperial cultMithraismMysteries of IsisSemitic CanaanitePunicYahwismScythianSlavicSomaliTonganUrartuVainakhZapotec Topics Aspects Apostasy / DisaffiliationBehaviourBeliefsCall to prayerClergyCovenantConversionDeitiesDenominationEntheogensEthnicFaithFireFolk religionGodGoddessIndigenousMeditationMonasticism MonkNoviceNunMysticismMythologyNatureOrdinationOrthodoxyOrthopraxyPrayerProphecyReligious experienceRitual LiturgyPurificationSacrificeSacred space Bodies of waterGrovesMountainsTreesSoulSpiritualitySupernaturalSymbolsTruthWaterWorship Place Theism AnimismDeismDualismHenotheismMonotheismNontheismPanentheismPantheismPolytheismTranstheism Religious studies AnthropologyCognitive scienceComparativeEvolutionary origin of religionEvolutionary psychologyHistoryNeurotheologyPhilosophyPsychologySociologySoteriology SalvationTheologyTheories about religionWomen Religion and society AgricultureBusinessClergy / Laity MonasticismOrdinationPriestConversion AssimilationMissionaryProselytismDisabilityEducationFanaticismFreedom PluralismSyncretismTolerationUniversalismFundamentalismGrowthHappinessHomosexualityMinoritiesNational churchNational religiosity levelsPoliticsPopulationsReligiocentrismSchismScienceStateTheocracyVegetarianismVideo gamesViolence PersecutionTerrorismWarWealth Secularism and irreligion AgnosticismAntireligionAtheismCriticismDeconstructionObjectivismSecular humanismSecular theologySecularizationSeparation of church and stateUnaffiliated Overviews and lists Abrahamic prophetsDeificationDeitiesFoundersIndexMass gatheringsNames of GodNew religious movementsOrganizationsOutlineReligions and spiritual traditionsScholarsTimeline Religion by country Africa AlgeriaAngolaBeninBotswanaBurkina FasoBurundiCameroonCape VerdeCentral African RepublicChadComorosDemocratic Republic of the CongoRepublic of the CongoDjiboutiEgyptEquatorial GuineaEritreaEswatiniEthiopiaGabonGambiaGhanaGuineaGuinea-BissauIvory CoastKenyaLesothoLiberiaLibyaMadagascarMalawiMaliMauritaniaMauritiusMoroccoMozambiqueNamibiaNigerNigeriaRwandaSão Tomé and PríncipeSenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSomaliaSouth AfricaSouth SudanSudanTanzaniaTogoTunisiaUgandaZambiaZimbabwe Asia AfghanistanArmeniaAzerbaijanBahrainBangladeshBhutanBruneiCambodiaChinaCyprusEast TimorGeorgiaHong KongIndiaIndonesiaIranIraqIsraelJapanJordanKazakhstanKorea North KoreaSouth KoreaKuwaitKyrgyzstanLaosLebanonMacauMalaysiaMaldivesMongoliaMyanmarNepalOmanPakistanPalestinePhilippinesQatarSaudi ArabiaSingaporeSri LankaSyriaTaiwanTajikistanThailandTurkeyTurkmenistanUnited Arab EmiratesUzbekistanVietnamYemen Europe AlbaniaAndorraAustriaBelarusBelgiumBosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaCroatiaCzechiaDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyKosovoLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMaltaMoldovaMonacoMontenegroNetherlandsNorth MacedoniaNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaRussiaSan MarinoSerbiaSlovakiaSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUkraineUnited Kingdom EnglandNorthern IrelandScotlandWales North America Antigua and BarbudaBahamasBarbadosBelizeCanadaCosta RicaCubaDominicaDominican RepublicEl SalvadorGrenadaGuatemalaHaitiHondurasJamaicaMexicoNicaraguaPanamaSaint Kitts and NevisSaint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesTrinidad and TobagoUnited States Oceania AustraliaFijiKiribatiMarshall IslandsMicronesiaNauruNew ZealandPalauPapua New GuineaSamoaSolomon IslandsTongaTuvaluVanuatu South America ArgentinaBoliviaBrazilChileColombiaEcuadorGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuela  Category Portal Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International VIAF National FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech RepublicVatican Other Encyclopedia of Modern UkraineHistorical Dictionary of SwitzerlandNARAIdRefİslâm Ansiklopedisi Portals:  Islam icon Religions Categories: Islam610 establishmentsAbrahamic religionsMonotheistic religionsReligious organizations established in the 7th century Western Roman Empire     Hammered coinage is the most common form of coins produced since the invention of coins in the first millennium BC until the early modern period of ca. the 15th–17th centuries, contrasting to the very rare cast coinage and the later developed milled coinage. Hammered coins were produced by placing a blank piece of metal (a planchet or flan) of the correct weight between two dies, and then striking the upper die with a hammer to produce the required image on both sides. The planchet was usually cast from a mold. The bottom die (sometimes called the anvil die) was usually counter sunk in a log or other sturdy surface and was called a pile. One of the minters held the die for the other side (called the trussel), in his hand while it was struck either by himself or an assistant. Striking coins: wall relief at Rostock In later history, in order to increase the production of coins, hammered coins were sometimes produced from strips of metal of the correct thickness, from which the coins were subsequently cut out. Both methods of producing hammered coins meant that it was difficult to produce coins of a regular diameter. Coins were liable to suffer from "clipping" where unscrupulous people would remove slivers of precious metal since it was difficult to determine the correct diameter of the coin. Coins were also vulnerable to "sweating," which is when silver coins would be placed in a bag that would be vigorously shaken. This would produce silver dust, which could later be removed from the bag. Milled coins The ability to fashion coins from machines (Milled coins) caused hammered coins to gradually become obsolete during the 17th century. Interestingly, they were still made in Venice until the 1770s. France became the first country to adopt a full machine-made coin in 1643. In England, the first non-hammered coins were produced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in the 1560s, but while machine-produced coins were experimentally produced at intervals over the next century, the production of hammered coins did not finally end until 1662. Cast coins An alternative method of producing early coins, particularly found in Asia, especially in China, was to cast coins using molds. This method of coin production continued in China into the nineteenth century. Up to a couple of dozen coins could be produced at one time from a single mold, when a 'tree' of coins (which often contained features such as a square hole in the centre) would be produced and the individual coins (called cash) would then be broken off. oins are pieces of hard material used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins are usually metal or alloy metal, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes: these coins are usually worth less than banknotes: usually the highest value coin in circulation (i.e. excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, or the general public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g. C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not. Historically, a great quantity of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Today, the term coin can also be used in reference to digital currencies which are not issued by a state. As of 2013, examples include BitCoin and LiteCoin, among others. As coins have long been used as money, in some languages the same word is used for "coin" and "currency".
Currency A selection of metal coins. Part of a series on Numismatics the study of currency 2002 currency exchange AIGA euro money.png Glossary Currency CoinsBanknotesForgery ListISO Circulating currencies AfricaThe AmericasEuropeAsiaOceania Local currencies Company scripLETSTime dollars Fictional currencies Proposed currencies History Historical currencies AksumiteAchaemenidByzantineChineseFilipinoGreekIndianJapanRomanThaiTibetan Medieval currencies Production MintDesignersCoining MillingHammeringCast Collection Coin collecting CoinsCommemorative coins Bullion coins Notaphily BanknotesCommemorative banknotes Exonumia Credit cardsJetonsMedals TokensChequesScrips Scripophily StocksBonds  Numismatics portalicon Money portal vte A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. Obverse and its opposite, reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and medals. In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails. Coins are generally made of metal or an alloy, or sometimes of man-made materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle, and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Ancient History Bullion and unmarked metals An oxhide ingot from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values. Metal ingots, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably in use for exchange among many of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the Achaemenid Empire in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The barter system, as well as silver bullion were used instead for trade.[2] The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century BC.[3] Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the current ruler to guarantee their worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began.[citation needed] Tongbei in Bronze Age China (c. 1100 BC) In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6] China Henan Coin Factory (c. 640 – 550 BC) The worlds oldest coin factory is excavated in the ancient city Guanzhuang in Henan province in China. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., which is the oldest securely dated minting site.[7][8] Iron Age Lydian and Ionian electrum coins (c. 600 BC) Coin of Alyattes of Lydia, c. 620/10-564/53 BC. The earliest inscribed coinage: electrum coin of Phanes from Ephesus, 625–600 BC. Obverse: Stag grazing right, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two incuse punches, each with raised intersecting lines.[9] The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[10] Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[11] The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development.[12] Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("myth" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). This was the site of the earliest known deposit of electrum coins.[9] Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade[citation needed]. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.[13] Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.[14] In contrast Herodotus mentioned the innovation made by the Lydians:[12] "So far as we have any knowledge, they [the Lydians] were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins, and the first who sold goods by retail" — Herodotus, I94[12] And both Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), mention that the first issuer of coinage was Hermodike/Demodike of Cyme.[15] Cyme was a city in Aeolia, nearby Lydia. "Another example of local pride is the dispute about coinage, whether the first one to strike it was Pheidon of Argos, or Demodike of Kyme (who was wife of Midas the Phrygian and daughter of King Agammemnon of Kyme), or Erichthonios and Lycos of Athens, or the Lydians (as Xenophanes says) or the Naxians (as Anglosthenes thought)" — Julius Pollux, Onamastikon IX.83[15] Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[16] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of Phanes, dated to 625–600 BC from Ephesus in Ionia, with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) (“I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light”) or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ (“of Phanes”). The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king Alyattes of Lydia (died c. 560 BC), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage.[17] Croesus: Pure gold and silver coins Croeseids Gold Croeseid, minted by King Croesus, c. 561–546 BC. (10.7 grams, Sardis mint) Silver Croeseid, minted by King Croesus, c. 560–546 BC (10.7 grams, Sardis mint) The gold and silver Croeseids formed the world's first bimetallic monetary system, c. 550 BC.[12] The successor of Alyattes, king Croesus (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.[12] and the world's first bimetallic monetary system c. 550 BC.[12] Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, leading to the development of Ancient Greek coinage and Achaemenid coinage, and further to Illyrian coinage.[18] Achaemenid coinage (546–330 BC) Main article: Achaemenid coinage The first type of Siglos (Type I: "King with bow and arrows", upper body of the king only), from the time of Darius I, c. 520–505 BC Daric gold coin, c. 490 BC; one of the most successful of Antiquity. When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade.[2] The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century.[3] Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, who had put in place the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade powers of the time.[2] It seems Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull coinage.[2] Original coins of the Achaemenid Empire were issued from 520 BC – 450 BC to 330 BC. The Persian Daric was the first truly Achaemenid gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the Siglos, represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[19] Coinage of Southern Asia under the Achaemenid Empire See also: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley and Coinage of India A siglos found in the Kabul valley, 5th century BC. Coins of this type were also found in the Bhir Mound hoard.[20][21] The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of India during the original expansion of Cyrus the Great, and the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley is dated to c. 515 BC under Darius I.[2] An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard,[22] is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[21] The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC.[23] The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule.[24] Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.[24][25] According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC.[26] More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.[27] Punch-marked coin minted in the Kabul Valley under Achaemenid administration. Circa 500–380 BCE, or c.350 BCE. Punch-marked coin minted in the Kabul Valley under Achaemenid administration, c. 500–380 BC, or c. 350 BC.[28][21]   Gandharan "bent-bar" punch-marked coin minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the Chaman Hazouri and the Bhir Mound hoards. Gandharan "bent-bar" punch-marked coin minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the Chaman Hazouri and the Bhir Mound hoards.   Early punch-marked coins of Gandhara, Taxila-Gandhara region. Early punch-marked coins of Gandhara, Taxila-Gandhara region. Greek Archaic coinage (until about 480 BC) Further information: Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage Silver stater of Aegina, 550–530 BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down centre. Rev. incuse square punch with eight sections. Athenian coin (c. 500/490–485 BC) discovered in the Shaikhan Dehri hoard in Pushkalavati, Ancient India. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.[29] According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was Hermodike of Kyme.[15] A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[30] The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema[31] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light".[32] The Phanes coins are among the earliest of Greek coins; a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god Phanes or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. Barclay V. Head found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus".[33] Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC.[34] Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.[35] Coin of Phaselis, Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC. Coin of Phaselis, Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC.   Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC. Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC.   Lycia coin. Circa 520-470 BCE. Struck with worn obverse die. Lycia coin, c. 520-470 BC. Struck with worn obverse die.[36]   Coin of Lesbos, Ionia, c. 510–80 BC. Coin of Lesbos, Ionia, c. 510–80 BC. Antiquity Classical Greek antiquity (480 BC~) Tetradrachm of Athens (c. 454–404 BC) Obverse: a portrait of Athena, patron goddess of the city, in helmet Reverse: the owl of Athens, with an olive sprig and the inscription "ΑΘΕ", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, "of the Athenians" A Syracusan tetradrachm (c. 415–405 BC) Obverse: head of the nymph Arethusa, surrounded by four swimming dolphins and a rudder Reverse: a racing quadriga, its charioteer crowned by the goddess Victory in flight. Further information: Ancient Greek coinage and Illyrian coinage The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city. The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity. Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of mainland Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550BC to 510BC.[37][38] Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 560 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.[39] Aegina coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC Aegina coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC   Coin of Akanthos, Macedon, c. 470-430 BC. Coin of Akanthos, Macedon, c. 470-430 BC.   Coin of Aspendos, Pamphylia, c. 465–430 BC. Coin of Aspendos, Pamphylia, c. 465–430 BC.   Coin from Korkyra, c. 350/30–290/70 BC. Coin from Korkyra, c. 350/30–290/70 BC.   Coin of Cyprus, c. 450 BC. Coin of Cyprus, c. 450 BC. Appearance of dynastic portraiture (5th century BC) The Achaemenid Empire Satraps and Dynasts in Asia Minor developed the usage of portraiture from c. 420 BC. Portrait of the Satrap of Lydia, Tissaphernes (c. 445–395 BC). Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the 5th century BC.[40][41] No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time.[41] The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical manner, showing a bust or the full body but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from c. 500 BC.[41][42][43] A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is Themistocles the Athenian general, who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander, c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire,[44] although there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself.[45] Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished.[46] From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.[41] Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Barley grain. Rev: Possible portrait of Themistocles. Circa 465–459 BC. Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Barley grain. Rev: Possible portrait of Themistocles, c. 465–459 BC.[47]   Portrait of Lycian ruler Kherei wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC). Portrait of Lycian ruler Kherei wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC).   Portrait of Lycian ruler Erbbina wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC). Portrait of Lycian ruler Erbbina wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC).   Portrait of Lycian ruler Perikles facing (ruled 380-360 BC). Portrait of Lycian ruler Perikles facing (ruled 380-360 BC). Indian coins (c. 400 BC – AD 100) Main article: Punch-marked_coins § Indian_punch-marked_coins See also: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley and Coinage of India Hoard of mostly Mauryan Empire coins, 3rd century BC. The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC,[48] influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the Kabul hoard,[49] or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.[27] Chinese round coins (350 BC~) Main article: Ancient Chinese coinage Chinese round coins, Eastern Zhou dynasty – Warring States Period, c. 300–220 BC. Four Hua (四化, 30mm, 6.94 g). Legend Yi Si Hua ([City of] Yi Four Hua). In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of 3rd century BC.[50] The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the jin and liang units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in hua (化). Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang Dang Lie spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars. Hellenistic period (320 BC – AD 30) Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Seleucid coinage, and Indo-Greek coinage Poshumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from Posthumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from Temnos, Aeolis. Dated 188–170 BC. Obverse: Alexander the Great as Herakles facing right wearing the nemean lionskin. Reverse: Zeus seated on throne to the left holding eagle in right hand and scepter in left; in left field PA monogram and angular sigma above grape vine arching over oinochoe; ALEXANDROU vertical in right field. Reference: Price 1678. The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period. Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World"). Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BCE), Ai Khanoum. Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BC), Ai Khanoum.[51]   Antiochus I (281–261 BC), Ai Khanoum. Antiochus I (281–261 BC), Ai Khanoum.   Bilingual coin of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (105–95 BC). Bilingual coin of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (105–95 BC).   Bilingual coin of Agathocles of Bactria with Hindu deities, c. 180 BC. Bilingual coin of Agathocles of Bactria with Hindu deities, c. 180 BC. Roman period (290 BC~) Further information: Roman currency, Roman Republican currency, Aureus, Solidus (coin), Denarius, Antoninianus, and Sestertius Crawford 13-1 Obverse.jpgCrawford 13-1 Reverse.jpg O: Bearded head of Mars with Corinthian helmet left. R: Horse head right, grain ear behind. The first Roman silver coin, 281 BC. Crawford 13/1 Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[52] Coins came late to the Roman Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC.[53] Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.[39] Sestertius of Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, AD 238 Sestertius of Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, AD 238   Set of three Roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian, AD 69–96 Set of three Roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian, AD 69–96   Silver Drachma of Mehrdad (Mithridates I) of Persian Empire of Parthia, 165 BC Silver Drachma of Mehrdad (Mithridates I) of Persian Empire of Parthia, 165 BC Middle Ages [icon] This section needs expansion with: more details from the articles in further information. You can help by adding to it. (September 2021) Further information: Byzantine mints, Visigothic coinage, Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England, Medieval Bulgarian coinage, Gold dinar, Coinage of the Republic of Venice, Portuguese dinheiro, Sceat, and Pfennig Further information: History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066), Japanese mon (currency), and Reichsmünzordnung The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year in which the coin was minted was the St. Gall silver Plappart of 1424.[54] Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700 Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700   Silver coin of Borandukht of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629 Silver coin of Borandukht of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629   Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework   Abbasid coin, c. 1080s Abbasid coin, c. 1080s   Almoravid coin, 1138–1139 Almoravid coin, 1138–1139 Modern history [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2021) Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629 Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629   Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, c. 1736–1741 Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, c. 1736–1741   1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the “piece of eight” of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire 1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the “piece of eight” of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire   Ottoman coin, 1818 Ottoman coin, 1818   One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835 One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835   Silver coin of the Bengal Sultanate ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad Silver coin of the Bengal Sultanate ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad Value Five million mark coin (Weimar Republic, 1923). Despite its high denomination, this coin's monetary value dropped to a tiny fraction of a US cent by the end of 1923, substantially less than the value of its metallic content. ლაშა-გიორგის მონეტა 1210 წ..png An unusual copper coin of King George IV of Georgia with Georgian inscriptions, 1210 A silver coin made during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II Currency Main article: Currency Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[55] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.[56] Collector's items Main article: Numismatics A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces,[57] trading platforms, and forums, Media of expression See also: Hobo nickel and Elongated penny Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins.[58] This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while,[when?] the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so strict laws against alteration make more sense historically.[citation needed] 31 CFR § 82.2(b) goes on to state that: "The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins."[59] Debasement and clipping Main article: Debasement A Swiss ten-cent coin from 1879, similar to the oldest coins still in official use today Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint, c. 188–170 BC Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable. The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper. Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100. Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value.[60] Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally.[61] Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping. Other uses See also: Exonumia Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts".[62] Some of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia. Modern features Coins can be stacked. 1884 United States trade dollar French 1992 twenty Franc Tri-Metallic coin Bimetallic Egyptian one pound coin featuring King Tutankhamen The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (see List of people on coins), or a national emblem is called the obverse (colloquially, heads); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the reverse (colloquially, tails). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions. The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the United States dollar coin. Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico. The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny. 3 Rubles proof coin of Russia, minted in 2008 Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves. Scalloped coin of Israel Scalloped coin of Israel   1996 one cent coin from Belize 1996 one cent coin from Belize   Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990 Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990 Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognizable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted. A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007.[63] Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin. Some medieval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side. Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese 50 yen and 100 yen coin. 1917 French coin with integrated hole 1917 French coin with integrated hole   Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106 Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106   1941 Palestine coin 1941 Palestine coin   Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin   1924 East African coin 1924 East African coin Holographic coin from Liberia features the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image. The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process.[64] An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.[65] For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals.[66] Physics and chemistry An American Silver Eagle minted in 2019 (left), an example of a Bullion coin. Its obverse design is based on the older, formerly circulating silver Walking Liberty half dollar (right). Flipping Main article: Coin flipping To flip a coin to see whether it lands heads or tails is to use it as a two-sided dice in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair. Spinning Further information: Euler's Disk Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.[67] Odor Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one.[68] Regional examples Philippines This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (February 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2021) The Piloncitos are tiny engraved gold coins found in the Philippines, along with the barter rings, which are gold ring-like ingots. These barter rings are bigger than doughnuts[specify] in size and are made of pure gold from the Archaic period (c. 10th to 16th century).[69] In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called Piloncitos were excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. Large quantities were found in Indonesian archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous Spanish accounts state that the gold coins were mined and labored in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586: “The people of this island (Luzon) are very skillful in their handling of gold. They weigh it with the greatest skill and delicacy that have ever been seen. The first thing they teach their children is the knowledge of gold and the weights with which they weigh it, for there is no other money among them.”[70] See also Numismatics portal icon Economy portal icon Money portal Bi-metallic coin Coin base weight Coin collecting Coin counter Coin counterfeiting Coin magic Coin sorter Coin standard Currency Hanukkah gelt – Chocolate coin History of coins Legal tender List of currencies List of circulating currencies List of mints List of most expensive coins Mint Money Seigniorage Token coin Ten-cent coin Notes and references  Tony Clayton. "Comprehensive list of metals and their alloys which have been used at various times, in coins for all types of purposes". coinsoftheuk.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-08-15.  Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 61–65. ISBN 9780199372188.  Discovery of a hoard of currency with silver bars near Malayer, dated circa 600 BCE, with photographs in Bivar, Adrian David Hugh. Hoard of Ingot-Currency of the Median Period from Nūsh-i Jān, near Malayir (1971). pp. 97–111.  "中國最早金屬鑄幣 商代晚期鑄造銅貝-河南概況". Big5.henan.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2012-03-17. Retrieved 2012-05-22.  Giedroyc, Richard (2006-11-15). The Everything Coin Collecting Book: All You Need to Start Your Collection …. ISBN 9781593375683. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2012-05-21.  YK Kwan. "A snap shot view of The history of China by YK Kwan". Chinesechinese.net. Archived from the original on 2012-05-03. Retrieved 2012-05-21.  Kramer, Jillian (6 August 2021). "'World's oldest' coin factory discovered in China". National geographic. Retrieved 24 July 2022.  Zhao, Hao; Gao, Xiangping; Jiang, Yuchao; Lin, Yi; Zhu, Jin; Ding, Sicong; Deng, Lijun; Zhang, Ji (6 August 2021). "Radiocarbon-dating an early minting site: the emergence of standardised coinage in China". Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. 95 (383): 1161–1178. doi:10.15184/aqy.2021.94. S2CID 238220610. Retrieved 24 July 2022.  CNG: IONIA, Ephesos. Phanes. Circa 625–600 BC. EL Trite (14mm, 4.67 g).  M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's La naissance de la monnaie, Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.  "The Types of Greek Coins" An Archaeological Essay by Percy Gardner 1883 p.42 "Considering these and other facts it may be held to be probable, if not absolutely proved, that priests first issued stamped coin, and that the first mints were in Greek temples." [1][dead link]  Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–50. ISBN 9780199372188.  "Hoards, Small Change, and the Origin of Capitalism," Journal of the Hellenistic Studies 84 (1964), p. 89  M. Mitchiner, Ancient Trade and Early Coinage, Hawkins Publications, London, 2004, p. 214  Muscarella, Oscar White (15 June 2013). Archaeology, Artifacts and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East: Sites, Cultures, and Proveniences. ISBN 978-9004236691.  G. Hanfmann, pp. 73, 77. R. Seaford, p. 128, points out, "The nearly total lack of … coins in the excavated commercial-industrial areas of Sardis suggests that they were concentrated in the hands of the king and possibly wealthy merchants."  A. Ramage, "Golden Sardis", King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, edited by A. Ramage and P. Craddock, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 18.  "Cent". Archived from the original on 6 March 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2015.  Michael Alram, "DARIC", Encyclopaedia Iranica, December 15, 1994, last updated November 17, 2011  Bopearachchi, Osmund; Cribb, Joe (1992), "Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia", in Errington, Elizabeth; Cribb, Joe; Claringbull, Maggie (eds.), The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan, Ancient India and Iran Trust, pp. 57–59, ISBN 978-0-9518399-1-1, Coins of this type found in Chaman Hazouri (deposited c.350 BCE) and Bhir Mound hoards (deposited c.300 BCE).  Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia 1992, pp. 57–59: "The most important and informative of these hoards is the Chaman Hazouri hoard from Kabul discovered in 1933, which contained royal Achaemenid sigloi from the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, together with a large number of Greek coins dating from the fifth and early fourth century BCE, including a local imitation of an Athenian tetradrachm, all apparently taken from circulation in the region."  Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation 2000, pp. 300–301  Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation 2000, p. 309 and Note 65  Metcalf, William E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–80. ISBN 9780199372188.  André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 208 Coin no.381 for the Persian column capitals. ISBN 9780520247314.  Cribb, Investigating the introduction of coinage in India 1983, p. 101  372. Lot: 658, Lot of two AR bent bars, CNG Coins. Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia 1992, pp. 57–59: "Silver bent-bar punch-marked coin of Kabul region under the Achaemenid Empire, c.350 BC: Coins of this type found in quantity in Chaman Hazouri and Bhir Mound hoards." (Commentary by Joe Cribb and Osmund Bopearachchi)  "Extremely Rare Early Silver from the Kabul Valley", CNG 102, Lot:649, CNG Coins  "A Truly International Currency", Triton XV, Lot: 1163, ATTICA, Athens Archived 2019-12-25 at the Wayback Machine, CNG Coins  "Inscriptions and Titles on ancient Greek coins". Snible.org. Archived from the original on 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2012-05-21.  "Electrum stater inscribed with the name of Phanes". British Museum. 2011-09-29. Archived from the original on 2012-05-15. Retrieved 2012-05-21.  Newton Num. Chron., 1870, p. 238  Head, Barclay V. (1911). Historia Numorum, A Manual of Greek Numismatics, New and Enlarged Edition. London: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 25 October 2021.  British Museum Catalogue 11 – Attica Megaris Aegina, 700 – 550 BCE, plate XXIII Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine.  C. Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek Coins, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976.  CNG: LYCIA. Circa 520–470/60 BCE. AR Stater (18mm, 9.18 g).  "Bruttium – Ancient Greek Coins – WildWinds". Retrieved 8 September 2014.  "Lucania – Ancient Greek Coins – WildWinds.com". Retrieved 8 September 2014.  Giuseppe Amisano, "Cronologia e politica monetaria alla luce dei segni di valore delle monete etrusche e romane", in: Panorama numismatico, 49 (genn. 1992), pp. 15–20  "The earliest attempts at portraiture appear to have taken place in Lycia. The heads of various dynasts appear on coins of the fifth century" Carradice, Ian (1978). Ancient Greek Portrait Coins. British Museum Publications. p. 2. ISBN 9780714108490.  West, Shearer; Birmingham), Shearer (2004). Portraiture. OUP Oxford. p. 68. ISBN 9780192842589.  Root, Margaret Cool (1989). "The Persian archer at Persepolis : aspects of chronology, style and symbolism". Revue des Études Anciennes. 91: 43–50. doi:10.3406/rea.1989.4361.  "Half-figure of the King: unravelling the mysteries of the earliest Sigloi of Darius I" (PDF). The Celator. 26 (2): 20. February 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-21.  "A rare silver fraction recently identified as a coin of Themistocles from Magnesia even has a bearded portrait of the great man, making it by far the earliest datable portrait coin. Other early portraits can be seen on the coins of Lycian dynasts." Carradice, Ian; Price, Martin (1988). Coinage in the Greek World. Seaby. p. 84. ISBN 9780900652820.  Rhodes, P. J. (2011). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478–323 BC. John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. ISBN 9781444358582.  Howgego, Christopher (2002). Ancient History from Coins. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 9781134877843.  "CNG: IONIA, Magnesia ad Maeandrum. Themistokles. Circa 465-459 BC. AR Hemiobol (7mm, 0.37 g, 1h)".  HARDAKER, TERRY R. (1975). "The origins of coinage in northern India". The Numismatic Chronicle. 15: 200–203. JSTOR 42666515.  Cribb, Joe (1983). "Investigating the introduction of coinage in India – a review of recent research". Journal of the Numismatic Society of India. Varanasi. xlv: 85–86, 101.  Schaps, David (2004). The Invention of Coinage and the Monetization of Ancient Greece. University of Michigan Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0472113330.  "CNG Coin 338684".  Howgego, C. J. (1995). Ancient history from coins. Psychology Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-415-08993-7. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2011.  W. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World–Politics and Propaganda, Krause Publications, Iola, Wisconsin, 1997  "Early Dated Coins, Accessed December 2009".  "United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins". The United States Mint. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. Retrieved 2012-05-22.  Maes, Jonathan. "Is It Illegal to Melt/Destroy US Pennies and Other Coins?". Make it From Metal. Retrieved 2022-12-17.  "Colnect Marketplace Has Been Launched". PR.com. Retrieved 2019-02-20.  31 CFR §82.1, Legal Information Institute, accessed 22 July 2019.  31 CFR 82.2(b), Legal Information Institute, accessed 22 July 2019.  Cooper, George (2008). The Origin of Financial Crises. New York: Random House. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-307-47345-5.  Denis R. Cooper The Art and Craft of Coinmaking. A History of Minting Technology. London: Spink, 1988. ISBN 0-907605-27-3 p.47  "Convict tokens, National Museum of Australia". Nma.gov.au. 2012-01-25. Archived from the original on 2011-09-20. Retrieved 2016-10-05.  It is unlikely to be spent as it costs 15GBP to buy – article Pyramid coin a nightmare for pockets, article by Gary  Smith, Marie-Danielle (18 January 2018). "Royal Canadian Mint sues Royal Australian Mint in row over poppy coin printing". The National Post. Retrieved 18 January 2018.  "Composite coins". Pridnestrovian Republican Bank. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2020.  Tony Clayton. "Metals Used in Coins and Medals". Tclayton.demon.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-04-01. Retrieved 2012-05-22.  Easwar, K.; Rouyer, F.; Menon, N. (2002). "Speeding to a stop: The finite-time singularity of a spinning disk". Physical Review E. 66 (4): 045102. Bibcode:2002PhRvE..66d5102E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.66.045102. PMID 12443243.  A 'metallic' smell is just body odour Archived 2016-05-24 at the Wayback Machine  "Metropolitan Museum of Manila, Philippines: Art for All - www.metmuseum.ph". Archived from the original on 2012-12-15. Retrieved 2013-08-01.  "'Piloncitos' and the 'Philippine golden age' | Inquirer Opinion". 30 August 2011. Archived from the original on 2017-05-16. Retrieved 2017-04-28. Works cited Cribb, Joe (1983), "Investigating the introduction of coinage in India - A review of recent research", Journal of the Numismatic Society of India: 80–101 Bibliography Angus, Ian (1973). Coins and money tokens. London: Ward Lock. ISBN 0-7063-1811-0. Bopearachchi, Osmund (2000), "Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest)", Indologica Taurinensia, International Association of Sanskrit Studies, 25 External links  Media related to Coins at Wikimedia Commons vte Medium of exchange Commodity money Axe-money (W. Mesoamerica & N. Andes)Cocoa bean (Mesoamerica)Fanery (Madagascar)Koku (rice)Manilla (W. Africa)Precious metalsQuachtli (cotton cloth)Rai stones (Micronesia)Ramen noodles (US prisons)Salt (Roman world)Shekel (barley)ShellsTrade bead Domestic animals Water buffalo (SE Asia)Cow (Hindu)Camel (Arabia)Yak (Tibet, China) Representative money BimetallismGold certificates icon Money portal Money (Fiat/Token) BailmentBanknoteCentral bank digital currencyChattel/movable propertyChequeClearing Cheque clearingClay tokenCoinageCurrencyDeposit Deposit accountLegal tenderNotaryPossessionPromissory noteRedemptionSafekeeping General List of historical currenciesBarter Coincidence of wantsBureau de changeCentral bankClearinghouse bankSavings bank Depository institutionMintAkkadian standards of measurement (c. 2150 BC)Code of Hammurabi (§100; §122–125; c. 1750 BC)Commodity theory of money (Metallism)Credit theory of money ChartalismQuantity theory of money MonetarismMarket monetarismStandard of deferred paymentStore of valueUnit of accountDigital currency CryptocurrencyDigital gold currencyVirtual currencyLocal currency Complementary currencySectoral currencyTime-based currency Authority control Edit this at Wikidata National libraries France (data)GermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech Republic Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerlandİslâm Ansiklopedisi
  • Condition: In Very Good Condition for its age
  • Composition: Unknown Coin
  • Time Period: 20th Century
  • Period: 21st Century
  • Country/Region: British
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: Unknown
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain

PicClick Insights - Arabic Unknown Gold Silver Coin Vintage Flea Market Find Old Islamic Mecca Medal PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 0 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 2 days for sale on eBay. 0 sold, 1 available. 1 bid.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 3,187+ items sold. 0.3% negative feedback. Top-Rated Plus! Top-Rated Seller, 30-day return policy, ships in 1 business day with tracking.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive