SOLID Sterling Silver Sea Shell Pendant Scallop Handmade Jewelry STAMPED 925

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Seller: Top-Rated Seller callistodesigns ✉️ (42,910) 99.7%, Location: Tucson, Arizona, US, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 391060999173 SOLID Sterling Silver Sea Shell Pendant Scallop Handmade Jewelry STAMPED 925 . I offer a shipping discount for customers who combine their payments for multiple purchases into one payment! The discount is regular shipping price for the first item and just 50 cents for each additional item! Please be sure to request a combined invoice before you make your payment. Thank you. I am selling this really gorgeous Sterling Silver Sea Shell pendant. It scallop or clam shell and would be perfect for an ocean lover. It measures 18 mm by 12 mm by 5 mm,  and it weighs 5.80 carats , which is 1.16 grams, and is marked with a ".925" on the backside, which I have take a photograph for you. This pendant has tested positive for solid sterling silver and the marking or stamping on the back of it is further proof of this. It is really nice, and in perfect condition with no flaws or issues. It is ready to go and be given as a gift or bought for yourself, it's ready to wear, all you need is a chain!  I offer a 100% money back guarantee if you are any less than perfectly happy when you receive anything from me, so please, buy with confidence. If you have anymore questions, just ask.

A seashell or sea shell , also known simply as a shell , is a hard, protective outer layer created by an animal that lives in the sea. The shell is part of the body of the animal. Empty seashells are often found washed up on beaches by beachcombers . The shells are empty because the animal has died and the soft parts have been eaten by another animal or have rotted out .

The term seashell usually refers to the exoskeleton of an invertebrate (an animal without a backbone). Most shells that are found on beaches are the shells of marine mollusks , partly because many of these shells endure better than other seashells.

Apart from mollusk shells , other shells that can be found on beaches are those of barnacles , horseshoe crabs and brachiopods . Marine annelid worms in the family Serpulidae create shells which are tubes made of calcium carbonate that are cemented onto other surfaces. The shells of sea urchins are called tests , and the moulted shells of crabs and lobsters are called exuviae . While most seashells are external, some cephalopods have internal shells.

Seashells have been used by humans for many different purposes throughout history and pre-history. However, seashells are not the only kind of shells; in various habitats it is possible to find shells from freshwater animals such as freshwater mussels and freshwater snails , and it is also possible to find the shells of land snails .

Terminology

When the word "seashells" is used to refer only to the shells of marine mollusks then studying seashells is part of conchology . Conchologists or serious collectors who have a scientific bias are in general careful not to disturb living populations and habitats: even though they may collect a few live animals, most responsible collectors do not often over-collect or otherwise disturb ecosystems.

When studying the whole molluscan animal is included as well as studying the shell, then the study is known as malacology ; a person who studies mollusks is known as a malacologist .

Occurrence

Seashells are commonly found in beach drift, which is natural detritus deposited along strandlines on beaches by the waves and the tides . Shells are very often washed up onto a beach empty and clean, the animal having already died, and the soft parts having rotted away or having been eaten by either predators or scavengers .

Empty seashells are often picked up by beachcombers. However, the majority of seashells which are offered for sale commercially have been collected alive (often in bulk) and then killed and cleaned, specifically for the commercial trade.[citation needed ] This type of large-scale exploitation can sometimes have a strong negative impact on local ecosystems , and sometimes can significantly reduce the distribution of rare species .

Molluscan seashells Seashells hand picked from beach drift in North Wales at Shell Island near Harlech Castle , Wales , bivalves and gastropods , March/April 1985 Main article: Mollusc shell

The word seashell is often used to mean only the shell of a marine mollusk . Marine mollusk shells that are familiar to beachcombers and thus most likely to be called "seashells" are the shells of marine species of bivalves (or clams ), gastropods (or snails ), scaphopods (or tusk shells ), polyplacophorans (or chitons ), and cephalopods (such as nautilus and spirula ). These shells are very often the most commonly encountered, both in the wild, and for sale as decorative objects.

Marine species of gastropods and bivalves are more numerous than land and freshwater species, and the shells are often larger and more robust. The shells of marine species also often have more sculpture and more color, although this is by no means always the case.

In the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the planet, there are far more species of colorful, large, shallow water shelled marine mollusks than there are in the temperate zones and the regions closer to the poles.

Although there are a number of species of shelled mollusks that are quite large, there are vast numbers of extremely small species too, see micromollusks .

Not all mollusks are marine however, there are numerous land and freshwater mollusks, see for example snail and freshwater bivalves . And not all mollusks have an external shell: some mollusks such as some cephalopods (squid and octopuses) have an internal shell, and many mollusks have no shell, see for example slug and nudibranch .

Bivalves Single valves of the bivalve Senilia senilis , plus two gastropods , washed up on the beach at Fadiouth , Senegal

Bivalves are often the most common seashells that wash up on large sandy beaches or in sheltered lagoons . They can sometimes be extremely numerous. Very often the two valves become separated.

There are more than 15,000 species of bivalves that live in both marine and freshwater. Examples of bivalves are clams, scallops, mussels, and oysters. The majority of bivalves consist of two identical shells that are held together by a flexible hinge. Inside the shells holds the animal’s body. Bivalves that do not have two shells either have one shell or they lack a shell all together. The shells are made of calcium bicarbonate and are secreted by the mantle. Bivalves, also known as pelecypods, are mostly filter feeders; they draw in water through their gills which then traps tiny food particles. Some bivalves have eyes and even an open circulatory system. Bivalves are used all over the world as types of food and as a way of getting pearls. But in the water, the larvae of some freshwater mussels can be dangerous to fish and can even bore through wood.

Shell Beach, Western Australia is a beach which is entirely made up of the shells of the cockle Fragum erugatum .

Gastropods Numerous Turritella gastropod shells washed up on a beach at Playa Grande, Costa Rica

Certain species of gastropod seashells (the shells of sea snails ) can sometimes be common, washed up on sandy beaches, and also on beaches that are surrounded by rocky marine habitat.

Polyplacophorans Loose valves or plates from Chiton tuberculatus from the beachdrift on the southeast coast of Nevis , West Indies

Chiton plates or valves often wash up on beaches in rocky areas where chitons are common. Chiton shells, which are composed of eight separate plates and a girdle, usually come apart not long after death, so they are almost always found as disarticulated plates. Plates from larger species of chitons are sometimes known as "butterfly shells" because of their shape.

Cephalopods Cuttlebone from a Sepia sp. Shells of 3 species of Nautilus

Only a few species of cephalopods have shells (either internal or external) that are sometimes found washed up on beaches.

Some cephalopods such as Sepia , the cuttlefish, have a large internal shell, the cuttlefish bone , and this often washes up on beaches in parts of the world where cuttlefish are common.

Spirula spirula is a deep water squid-like cephalopod. It has an internal shell which is small (about 1 in or 24 mm) but very light and buoyant. This chambered shell floats very well and therefore washes up easily and is familiar to beachcombers in the tropics.

Nautilus is the only genus of cephalopod that has a well-developed external shell. Females of the cephalopod genus Argonauta create a papery egg case which sometimes washes up on tropical beaches and is referred to as a "paper nautilus".

The largest group of shelled cephalopods, the ammonites , are extinct, but their shells are very common in certain areas as fossils .

Molluscan seashells used by other animals

Empty molluscan seashells are a sturdy, and usually readily available, "free" resource which is often easily found on beaches, in the intertidal zone , and in the shallow subtidal zone. As such they are sometimes used second-hand by animals other than humans for various purposes, including for protection (as in hermit crabs ) and for construction.

Mollusks
  • Carrier shells in the family Xenophoridae are marine shelled gastropods, fairly large sea snails. Most species of xenophorids cement a series of objects to the rim of their shells as they grow. These objects are sometimes small pebbles or other hard detritus. Very often shells of bivalves or smaller gastropods are used, depending on what is available on the particular substrate where the snail itself lives. It is not clear whether these shell attachments serve as camouflage , or whether they are intended to help prevent the shell sinking into a soft substrate.
An ocellated (spotted) octopus using a clamshell as a shelter
  • Small octopuses sometimes use an empty shell as a sort of cave to hide in, or hold seashells around themselves as a form of protection like a temporary fortress.

Invertebrates Marine hermit crab Diogenes pugilator , using a shell of the dog whelk Nassarius reticulatus
  • Almost all genera of hermit crabs use or "wear" empty marine gastropod shells throughout their lifespan, in order to protect their soft abdomens, and in order to have a strong shell to withdraw into if attacked by a predator. Each individual hermit crab is forced to find another gastropod shell on a regular basis, whenever it grows too large for the one it is currently using.
Some hermit crab species live on land and may be found quite some distance from the sea, including those in the tropical genus Coenobita .

Conchology Main article: Conchology

There are numerous popular books and field guides on the subject of shell-collecting. Although there are a number of books about land and freshwater mollusks, the majority of popular books emphasize, or focus exclusively on, the shells of marine mollusks. Both the science of studying mollusk shells and the hobby of collecting and classifying them are known as conchology . The line between professionals and amateur enthusiasts is often not well defined in this subject, because many amateurs have contributed to, and continue to contribute to, conchology and the larger science of malacology . Many shell collectors belong to "shell clubs" where they can meet others who share their interests. A large number of amateurs collect the shells of marine mollusks, and this is partly because many shells wash up empty on beaches, or live in the intertidal or sub-tidal zones, and are therefore easily found and preserved without much in the way of specialized equipment or expensive supplies. Some shell collectors find their own material and keep careful records, or buy only "specimen shells", which means shells which have full collecting data : information including how, when, where, in what habitat, and by whom, the shells were collected. On the other hand, some collectors buy the more widely available commercially-imported exotic shells, the majority of which have very little data, or none at all. To museum scientists, having full collecting data (when, where, and by whom it was collected) with a specimen is far more important than having the shell correctly identified. Some owners of shell collections hope to be able to donate their collection to a major natural history or zoology museum at some point, however, shells with little or no collecting data are usually of no value to science, and are likely not to be accepted by a major museum. Apart from any damage to the shell that may have happened before it was collected, shells can also suffer damage when they are stored or displayed. For an example of one rather serious kind of damage see Byne's disease .

Shell clubs

There are a number of clubs or societies which consist of people who are united by a shared interest in shells. In the US these clubs are more common in southerly coastal areas, such as Florida and California , where the marine fauna is rich in species.

Identification

Seashells are usually identified by consulting general or regional shell-collecting field guides , and specific scientific books on different taxa of shell-bearing mollusks (monographs ) or "iconographies" (limited text - mainly photographs or other illustrations). (For a few titles on this subject in the US, see the list of books at the foot of this article.) Identifications to the species level are generally achieved by examining illustrations and written descriptions, rather than by the use of Identification keys , as is often the case in identifying plants and other phyla of invertebrates. The construction of functional keys for the identification of the shells of marine mollusks to the species level can be very difficult, because of the great variability within many species and families. The identification of certain individual species is often very difficult, even for a specialist in that particular family. Some species cannot be differentiated on the basis of shell character alone.

Numerous smaller and more obscure mollusk species (see micromollusk ) are yet to be discovered and named. In other words, they have not yet been differentiated from similar species and assigned scientific (binomial) names in articles in journals recognized by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Large numbers of new species are published in the scientific literature each year. There are currently an estimated 100,000 species of mollusks worldwide.

Non-marine "seashells" A group of purchased (mostly marine) shells includes the shell of a large tropical land snail (upper right), and a shiny freshwater apple snail shell (center)

The term seashell is also applied loosely to mollusk shells that are not of marine origin, for example by people walking the shores of lakes and rivers using the term for the freshwater mollusk shells they encounter. Seashells purchased from tourist shops or dealers may include various freshwater and terrestrial shells as well. Non-marine items offered may include large and colorful tropical land snail shells, freshwater apple snail shells, and pearly freshwater unionid mussel shells. This can be confusing to collectors, as non-marine shells are often not included in their reference books.

Cultural significance

Currency Main article: shell money

Seashells have been used as a medium of exchange in various places, including many Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean islands, also in North America, Africa and the Caribbean.

1742 drawing of shells of the money cowry, Monetaria moneta
  • The most common species of shells to be used as currency have been Monetaria moneta , the "money cowry ", and certain tusk shells or dentalium , such as those used in North Western North America for many centuries.
  • Some tribes of the indigenous peoples of the Americas used shells for wampum and hair pipes .[ 1] The Native American wampum belts were made of the shell of the quahog clam.
  • It is of historic interest that the Dutch East India Company , a major force in the colonization of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, amassed a large portion of its vast fortune via trading shell money of the species Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus , in exchange for commodities such as spices , exotic animals, and gemstones , all of which were considered valuable in Europe at the time.

Tools

Seashells have often been used as tools , because of their strength and the variety of their shapes.

  • Giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) have been used as bowls, and when big enough, even as bathtubs and baptismal fonts.
  • Melo melo , the "bailer volute ", is so named because Native Australians used it to bail out their canoes.
  • Many different species of bivalves have been used as scrapers, blades, clasps, and other such tools, due to their shape.
  • Some marine gastropods have been used for oil lamps , the oil being poured in the aperture of the shell, and the siphonal canal serving as a holder for the wick.

Horticulture

Because seashells are in some areas a readily available bulk source of calcium carbonate, shells such as oyster shells are sometimes used as soil conditioners in horticulture . The shells are broken or ground into small pieces in order to have the desired effect of raising the pH and increasing the calcium content in the soil.

Religion and spirituality A sacred chank shell on the flag of Travancore , India

Seashells have played a part in religion and spirituality, sometimes even as ritual objects.

  • In Christianity, the scallop shell is considered to be the symbol of Saint James the Great , see Pecten jacobaeus .
  • In Hinduism left-handed shells of Turbinella pyrum (the sacred shankha ) are considered to be sacred to the god Vishnu . The person who finds a left-handed chank shell (one that coils to the left) is sacred to Vishnu, as well. The chank shell also plays an important role in Buddhism .
  • Cowries have often been considered to be symbols of female fertility. They were often treated as actual fertility charms . The dorsum of the shell resembles a pregnant belly, and the underside of the shell resembles a vulva . In the South Indian state of Kerala, cowries are used for making astrological predictions.
  • In Santería , shells are used for divination purposes.
  • The Moche culture of ancient Peru worshipped animals and the sea, and often depicted shells in their art.[ 2]

Musical instruments Main article: Conch (musical instrument) Hindu priest sounding a ritual trumpet made from Turbinella pyrum Korean military procession with Charonia trumpets

Seashells have been used as musical instruments, wind instruments for many hundreds if not thousands of years. Most often the shells of large sea snails are used, as trumpets, by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell or cutting off the tip of the spire altogether. Various different kinds of large marine gastropod shells can be turned into "blowing shells", however the most commonly encountered species used as "conch " trumpets are:

  • The sacred chank, Turbinella pyrum , known in India as the shankha . In Tibet it is known as "dung-dkar".[ 3]
  • The Triton shell also known as "Triton's trumpet" Charonia tritonis which is used as a trumpet in Melanesian and Polynesian culture and also in Korea and Japan. In Japan this kind of trumpet is known as the horagai . In Korea it is known as the nagak . In some Polynesian islands it is known as "pu ". [1]
  • The Queen Conch Strombus gigas , is or was sometimes used as a trumpet in the Caribbean.

Personal adornment Use of gastropod shells , specifically cowries , in traditional dress of the Kikuyu people of Kenya , Africa A Pearly King and Queen in London

Whole seashells or parts of sea shells have been used as jewelry or in other forms of adornment since prehistoric times. Mother of pearl was historically primarily a seashell product, although more recently some mother of pearl comes from freshwater mussels. Also see pearl .

  • Shell necklaces have been found in Stone Age graves as far inland as the Dordogne Valley in France.
  • Seashells are often used whole and drilled, so that they can be threaded like beads , or cut into pieces of various shapes. Sometimes shells can be found that are already "drilled" by predatory snails of the family Naticidae . Fine whole shell necklaces were made by Tasmanian Aboriginal women for more than 2,600 years. The necklaces represent a significant cultural tradition which is still practised by Palawa women elders. The shells used include pearly green and blue-green maireener (rainbow kelp) shells, brown and white rice shells, black cats' teeth shells and pink button shells.[ 4]
  • Naturally-occurring, beachworn, cone shell "tops" (the broken-off spire of the shell, which often has a hole worn at the tip) can function as beads without any further modification. In Hawaii these natural beads were traditionally collected from the beach drift in order to make puka shell jewelry. Since it is hard to obtain large quantities of naturally-occurring beachworn cone tops, almost all modern puka shell jewelry uses cheaper imitations, cut from thin shells of other species of mollusk, or even made of plastic.
  • Shells historically have been and still are made into, or incorporated into, necklaces, pendants, beads, earrings, buttons , brooches , rings , hair combs , belt buckles and other uses.
  • The shell of the large "bullmouth helmet" sea snail, scientific name Cypraecassis rufa , was historically, and still is, used to make valuable cameos .
  • Mother of pearl from many seashells including species in the family Trochidae , Turbinidae , Haliotidae , and various pearly bivalves, has often been used in jewelry, buttons, etc.
  • In London, Pearly Kings and Queens traditionally wear clothing covered in patterns made up of hundreds of "pearl buttons ", in other words, buttons made of mother-of-pearl or nacre . In recent years however, the majority of "pearl buttons" are imitations that are made of pearlescent plastic.

Crafts Main article: Sailor's Valentines

"Sailor's Valentines " were late 19th century decorative keepsakes which were made in the Caribbean, and which were often purchased by sailors to give to their loved ones back home for example in England. These valentines consisted of elaborate arrangements of small seashells glued into attractive symmetrical designs, which were encased on a wooden (usually octagonal) hinged box-frame. The patterns used often featured heart-shaped designs, or included a sentimental expression of love spelled out in small shells.

The making of shellwork artifacts is a practice of Aboriginal women from La Perouse in Sydney, New South Wales , dating back to the 19th century. Shellwork objects include baby shoes, jewelry boxes and replicas of famous landmarks, including the Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Sydney Opera House . The shellwork tradition began as an Aboriginal women's craft which was adapted and tailored to suit the tourist souvenir market, and which is now considered high art.[ 5]

Architectural decoration

Small pieces of colored and iridescent shell have been used to create mosaics and inlays , which have been used to decorate walls, furniture and boxes. Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been used to decorate mirror frames, furniture and man-made grottos .

Art Enormous seashell sculpture at Akkulam , Trivandum , India Large sculpture of a scallop on the beach at Aldeburgh , England Aphrodite , 1st century BC, 13 cms, 5 in Illustration from an 18th-century book, edited by Albertus Seba . These decorative arrangements were a popular way to display seashells at the time

A very large outdoor sculpture at Akkulam of a gastropod seashell is a reference to the sacred chank shell Turbinella pyrum of India. Maggi Hambling designed a striking 13 ft (4 m) high sculpture of a scallop shell which stands on the beach at Aldeburgh , in England. The goddess of love, Venus or Aphrodite is often traditionally depicted rising from the sea on a seashell. In the Birth of Venus (Botticelli) , Botticelli depicted the goddess Venus rising from the ocean on a scallop shell.

Poultry feeds

Sea shells found in the creek and backwater of the coast of west India are used as an additive to poultry feed. They are crushed and mixed with jawar maaze and dry fish.[citation needed ]

Shells of other marine invertebrates

Arthropods The moulted carapace of a lady crab found on the beach at Long Beach, Long Island, New York State Shell of horseshoe crab on a beach

Many arthropods have sclerites , or hardened body parts, which form a stiff exoskeleton made up mostly of chitin . In crustaceans , especially those of the class Malacostraca (crabs, shrimps and lobsters, for instance), the plates of the exoskeleton may be fused to form a more or less rigid carapace . Moulted carapaces of a variety of marine malacostraceans often wash up on beaches. The horseshoe crab is an arthropod of the family Limulidae . The shells or exuviae of these arachnids are common in beach drift in certain areas of the world.

Sea urchins Sea urchin test

Some echinoderms such as sea urchins , including heart urchins and sand dollars , have a hard "test" or shell. After the animal dies, the flesh rots out and the spines fall off, and then fairly often the empty test washes up whole onto a beach, where it can be found by a beachcomber. These tests are fragile and easily broken into pieces.

Brachiopods A whole animal of the brachiopod Lingula anatina from Australia with the shell showing on the left

The brachiopods , or lamp shells, superficially resemble clams, but the phylum is completely unrelated to mollusks. Most lines of brachiopods ended during the Permian-Triassic extinction event , and their ecological niche was filled by bivalves. A few of the remaining species of brachiopods occur in the low intertidal zone and thus can be found live by beachcombers.

Annelids

Some polychaetes , marine annelid worms in the family Serpulidae , secrete a hard tube made of calcium carbonate, adhering to stones or other shells. This tube resembles, and can be confused with, the shell of marine gastropod mollusks in the family Vermetidae , the worm snails.

Other more atypical kinds

A few other categories of marine animals leave remains which might be considered "seashells" in the widest possible sense of the word.

Chelonians

Sea turtles have a carapace and plastron of bone and cartilage which is developed from their ribs . Infrequently a turtle "shell" will wash up on a beach.

Hard corals Dish with beachworn coral pieces, marine gastropod shells, and echinoderm tests, from the Caribbean and the Mediterranean

Pieces of the hard skeleton of corals commonly wash up on beaches in areas where corals grow.

The construction of the shell-like structures of corals are aided by a symbiotic relationship with a class of algae , zooxanthellae . Typically a coral polyp will harbor particular species of algae, which will photosynthesise and thereby provide energy for the coral and aid in calcification,[ 6] while living in a safe environment and using the carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste produced by the polyp. Coral bleaching is a disruption of the balance between polyps and algae, and can lead to the breakdown and death of coral reefs.

Soft corals A x-ray photograph of a gorgonian

The skeletons of soft corals such as gorgonians , also known as sea fans and sea whips , commonly wash ashore in the tropics after storms.

Plankton and protists Marine diatoms form hard silicate shells

Plant-like diatoms and animal-like radiolarians are two forms of plankton which form hard silicate shells. Foraminifera and coccolithophore create shells known as "tests " which are made of calcium carbonate. All these shells and tests are usually (but in the case of foraminifera not always) microscopic in size.

Tiffany & Co. pitcher. c. 1871 . Pitcher has paneled sides, and repousse design with shells, scrolls and flowers. Top edge is repousse arrowhead leaf design.

Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by mass of silver and 7.5% by mass of other metals, usually copper . The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925.

Fine silver is 99.9% pure and is generally too soft for producing functional objects; therefore, the silver is usually alloyed with copper to give it strength while preserving the ductility and beauty of the precious metal . Other metals can replace the copper, usually with the intent to improve various properties of the basic sterling alloy such as reducing casting porosity , eliminating firescale , and increasing resistance to tarnish . These replacement metals include germanium , zinc and platinum , as well as a variety of other additives, including silicon and boron . A number of alloys, such as Argentium sterling silver , have appeared in recent years, formulated to lessen firescale or to inhibit tarnish, and this has sparked heavy competition among the various manufacturers, who are rushing to make claims of having the best formulation. However, no one alloy has emerged to replace copper as the industry standard, and alloy development is a very active area.

Contents
  • 1 Etymology
  • 2 History
  • 3 Hallmarks
  • 4 Uses
  • 5 Tarnish and corrosion
  • 6 References
  • 7 External links

Etymology Norman silver pennies changed designs every three years. This two-star design (possible origin of the word "sterling"), issued by William the Conqueror, is from 1077-1080.

One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form esterlin , in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux , dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. 1142) uses the Latin forms libræ sterilensium and libræ sterilensis monetæ . The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the most plausible etymology is derivation from a late Old English steorling (with (or like) a "little star"), as some early Norman pennies were imprinted with a small star. There are a number of obsolete hypotheses. One suggests a connection with starling , because four birds (in fact martlets ) were depicted on a penny of Edward I , and another a supposed connection with easterling , a term for natives of the Baltic or the Hanse towns of eastern Germany. This etymology is itself medieval, suggested by Walter de Pinchebek (ca. 1300) with the explanation that the coin was originally made by moneyers from that region.[ 1]

On the other hand, Philip Grierson , in his essay on Sterling, points out that the stars appeared on Norman pennies only for a single 3-year issue from 1077-80 (the Normans changed coin designs every 3 years), and that the star-theory thus fails on linguistic grounds: extensive research has been done on how coins acquire names, including nicknames. Grierson's proposed alternative involves an analogy with the Byzantine solidus , originally known the solidus aureaus meaning "solid gold" or "reliable gold". Even though English silver pennies had become famous for their consistent weight and purity in the days of Offa, King of Mercia , by the time of the Conquest English coinage had seriously degenerated. One of the first acts of the Normans was to restore the coinage to what it had been in the days of Offa and to maintain it consistently. Grierson thus proposes that "sterling" derives from "ster"[ 2] meaning "strong" or "stout".[ 3]

History Pair of sterling silver forks

The sterling alloy originated in continental Europe[citation needed ] and was being used for commerce as early as the 12th century in the area that is now northern Germany .

In England the composition of sterling silver was subject to official assay at some date before 1158, during the reign of Henry II , but its purity was probably regulated from centuries earlier, in Saxon times. A piece of sterling silver dating from Henry II's reign was used as a standard in the Trial of the Pyx until it was deposited at the Royal Mint in 1843. It bears the royal stamp ENRI. REX ("King Henry") but this was added later, in the reign of Henry III . The first legal definition of sterling silver appeared in 1275, when a statute of Edward I specified that 12 ounces of silver for coinage should contain 11 ounces 2¼ pennyweights of silver and 17¾ pennyweights of alloy.[ 4]

From about 1840 to somewhere around 1940 in the United States and Europe , sterling silver cutlery [US flatware] became de rigueur when setting a proper table . In fact, there was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged during that period.

The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. In conjunction with this, the dinner went from three courses to sometimes ten or more. There was a soup course , a salad course , a fruit course , a cheese course , an antipasto course , a fish course , the main course and a pastry or dessert course .

Individual eating implements often included forks (dinner fork , place fork , salad fork , pastry fork , shrimp or cocktail fork ), spoons (teaspoon , coffee spoon , demitasse spoon , bouillon spoon , gumbo soup spoon , iced tea spoon ) and knives (dinner knife , place knife , butter spreader , fruit knife , cheese knife ). This was especially true during the Victorian period, when etiquette dictated nothing should be touched with one's fingers.

Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory, and could include any or all of the following: carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four server, cake knife, bon bon spoon, tiny salt spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with brush.

Cutlery sets were often accompanied by tea sets , hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, sterling plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces.

In fact, the craze with sterling even extended to business (sterling paper clips , mechanical pencils , letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases ), to the boudoir (sterling dresser trays , mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns , perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips ) and even to children (cups, cutlery , rattles , christening sets ).

A number of factors converged to make sterling fall out of favor around the time of World War II . The cost of labor rose (sterling pieces were all still mostly hand made, with only the basics being done by machine). Only the wealthy could afford the large number of servants required for fancy dining with ten courses. And changes in aesthetics resulted in people desiring simpler dinnerware that was easier to clean.

Hallmarks

Over the years, some countries developed systems of hallmarking silver . The purpose of hallmark application is many fold:

  • To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece.
  • To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece.
  • To note the date and/or location of the manufacture or tradesman.

Uses

In addition to the uses of sterling silver mentioned above, there are some little known uses of sterling:

  • Evidence of silver and/or silver-alloy surgical and medical instruments has been found in civilizations as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items. Its natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it also exhibits medically-specific utility, including the fact that it is naturally aseptic, and, in respect of modern medical practices, it is resistant to antiseptics, heat sterilisation and body fluids.
  • Due to sterling silver having a special sound character, some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92.5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophone. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver, which they believe will make the instruments more resonant and colorful in timbre.

Tarnish and corrosion

Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution : silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide.[ 5] As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.

The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution , a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions .

Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top.

Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. Techniques such as wheel polishing , which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion.

  • Condition: Used
  • Brand: "Handmade"
  • Style: Pendant
  • Metal: Sterling Silver

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