Beirut Richest Man Vintage Photo 8X10 Inches Original 1969 Henri Faroun

$317.37 Buy It Now, Click to see shipping cost, 30-Day Returns, eBay Money Back Guarantee
Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176283104240 BEIRUT RICHEST MAN VINTAGE PHOTO 8X10 INCHES ORIGINAL 1969 HENRI FAROUN. Henri Faroun  One of Beirut's richest men, Henri Faroun owns a mansion which houses one of the world's foremost collections of Mid-Eastern art, valued at millions of dollars.  VINTAGE ORIGINAL 8X10 INCH PHOTO FROM 1969 Henri Philippe Pharaon (or Henry Pharon) (1901 – August 6, 1993), was a Lebanese art collector, sportsman, politician and businessman. He played a crucial role in securing Lebanon's independence from France and served as foreign minister and other Cabinet positions. He is also remembered as a champion of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims.
Henry Pharoun, a former Foreign Minister who played a crucial role in Lebanon's fight for independence from France, was found stabbed to death today in his bed at the Carlton Hotel. He was 92 and had lived in the hotel for the last 18 months. His driver and bodyguard, Youssef Sorour, 45, was found near the bed, also stabbed to death. Both had wounds so severe that the police at first reported that the bodies had been riddled with bullets. The police said the motive for the killings could have been robbery. The bedroom safe was found open, and Mr. Pharoun's wallet and a gold public-service medal were missing. Mr. Pharoun, a wealthy sportsman with a passion for horses, was stabbed 16 times and his bodyguard was stabbed 20 times, said the coroner, Ahmed Harati. He also said that no bruises were visible on either body, indicating that neither had resisted. Championed Coexistence Mr. Pharoun, a Greek Catholic, was one of a group of Christian and Muslim politicians who struggled to win Lebanon's independence in 1943. He designed the country's flag of red and green with a green cedar in the center and served as Foreign Minister and in other Cabinet posts. He was one of the most respected champions of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims and took no side during the 1975-1990 civil war. Unlock more free articles. Create an account or log in His international reputation came mainly from the art and antiquities he amassed at his two-story stone palace on the Green Line, which divides Beirut into Muslim and Christian sectors. The palace resembles a Gothic castle with a hodgepodge of Greek and Roman statues and sarcophaguses in the walled garden. Also among his possessions was one of the five letters believed to have been written on deer skin by Mohammed. He moved to the seaside Carlton in 1992 when his son, Naji, sold the palace to a Saudi Arabian prince. Banker and Horse Breeder In the 1950's and 1960's Mr. Pharoun owned the world's biggest racing stable of Arabian horses, with more than 300 horses. Editors’ Picks He Made Brooklyn Comedy a Scene. But His Life Took a Different Turn. The Lesson We Are Learning From Zoom Here’s How Those Hot Jigsaw Puzzles Are Made He also founded Bank Pharoun and Shiha, which is now one of Beirut's oldest financial institutions. Mr. Pharoun was born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1901. Four years later, his family moved to Beirut, where he was educated in French missionary schools. He went to college in Switzerland and received a law degree at Lyons University in France. He married Nawali Kassar, heiress of a wealthy Palestinian family from Jaffa, in 1922, when he was the tennis champion of Lebanon. She died more than 15 years ago. Mr. Pharoun is survived by his son, his only child. Henri-Philippe Pharaon, Lebanese politician and businessman (born 1901?, Alexandria, Egypt?—died Aug. 6, 1993, Beirut, Lebanon), was a founding father of independent Lebanon, the designer of the Lebanese national flag, and a champion of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims. Pharaon was born into a wealthy Greek Catholic family and educated in Switzerland and France, where he received a law degree. He entered the parliament when Lebanon gained independence from France (1943-46). As foreign minister (1945; 1946-47), he oversaw Lebanon’s role as a founding member of the Arab League. In the late 1950s he sought to mediate between the country’s pro-Western and pro-Arab factions, but when he was not appointed to the compromise Cabinet, he gradually withdrew from politics. Pharaon’s business interests included a major role in the port of Beirut, control of one of the country’s leading banks, a fabulous art collection he acquired for the Pharaon palace in central Beirut, and one of the world’s largest stables of Arabian racehorses. Henri Pharoun, politician, racehorse owner, collector: born Alexandria, Egypt 1901; married 1922 Nawalli Kassar (one son); died Beirut 6 August 1993. NOTHING about Henri Pharoun so ill became his life as the way in which he departed it. A founder of Lebanon's independence, a multi-millionaire stable owner and antique collector, lawyer, banker and linguist, the 92-year-old champion of coexistence between Muslims and Christians was discovered yesterday morning, repeatedly stabbed with a knife in the bedroom of a cut-rate Beirut hotel. He had lived there for the past 18 months, deeply embittered at the sale of his family palace by his only son to a Saudi prince. His treasures included one of the five letters allegedly written by the Prophet Muhammad on deerskin, the finest series of Roman and Greek statues in Lebanon and one of the first Lebanese flags, stitched in 1941 and whose red, white and cedar-tree design he himself devised. For 30 years, he ran Beirut's port authority - jobs were awarded without religious discrimination - but his greatest love remained the racetrack; he owned the largest racing stable of Arabian horses anywhere. 'The horse racetrack and the port are the main bastions of coexistence that ensures Lebanon's survival,' he told race-goers in 1990 before breaking down in tears. Born in Alexandria, Pharoun was brought up by an English nanny - his English was flawless although he also spoke French and Italian as well as his native Arabic - and was educated at French missionary schools in Beirut before attending college in Switzerland and studying law in France. At the age of only 21, he married a Palestinian heiress, Nawalli Kassar, whose beauty was compared by her friends to that of the young Rita Hayworth. But he was a lonely man whose later private life was often the subject of gossip in Beirut. In a part of the world where discussion of such matters is still taboo, Pharoun was known to be a homosexual and the Lebanese police believe that a private relationship may have been the cause of the old man's murder. He spent his later years in his palace alone, guarded by a mastiff almost half his height, surrounded by the Delft tiles, 15th-century Damascene ceilings and antique carpets which he had collected across the Middle East. He stayed on in his front-line Gothic-style keep throughout the shell-fire of the civil war, his garden lined with Roman and Greek sarcophagi. Despite his opposition to French rule, he was a Westerner at heart, founding the pro-European, non-Arab Mediterranean Party in 1949 when the Lebanese were fiercely debating their national identity - Western or Arab - in a contest which would, less than three decades later, detonate Lebanon's 15-year civil war. Throughout that conflict, Pharoun, bent double over a cane, his eyes shielded by thick black glasses, said his obsession was to see race-horses competing in Beirut again. 'I want to see them running again before I die,' he would tell visitors. He got his wish in 1990. He is survived by his son Naji and by the Lebanese bank which he founded and which still bears his family name.A state funeral will be held Sunday for Henry Pharoun, 92, a Lebanese independence hero and billionaire sportsman who was found stabbed to death Friday in his hotel room. Pharoun was one of a group of Christian and Muslim politicians who struggled to win Lebanon's independence from France in 1943. He designed Lebanon's red and white flag, with a green cedar in the center, and served as foreign minister and in other Cabinet posts in the new nation. He was one of the most respected champions of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims and took no sides during the 1975-90 civil war. The body of his bodyguard, Youssef Sorour, 45, was found near the bed in the seaside Carlton Hotel. Police said the motive could have been robbery. A safe in the bedroom was found flung open with Pharoun's wallet and gold public service medal missing. Pharoun's international reputation came mainly from the art and antiquities that he amassed at his two-story palace on the Green Line that split Beirut into Muslim and Christian sectors during the war. Among his possessions was one of the five letters believed to have been written by the Prophet Mohammed on deerskin. Pharoun once owned the world's biggest racing stable of Arabian horses, with more than 300 of them in the 1950s and 1960s. Born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1901, he moved with his family in 1905 to Beirut, where he was educated in French missionary schools. He went to college in Switzerland and had a law degree from Lyon University in France. Pharoun married Nawali Kassar, heiress of a wealthy Palestinian family from Jaffa, in 1922, when he was the tennis champion of Lebanon. She died before the civil war broke out. He founded one of Beirut's oldest banks, Bank Pharoun & Shiha. Henri Philippe Pharaon (or Henry Pharon) (1901 – August 6, 1993), was a Lebanese art collector, sportsman, politician and businessman. He played a crucial role in securing Lebanon's independence from France and served as foreign minister and other Cabinet positions. He is also remembered as a champion of peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims. Contents 1 Biography 2 Notes 3 References 4 External links Biography Pharaon was born the son of Philippe Pharaon a wealthy Lebanese Melkite Catholic merchant in Alexandria, Egypt. Four years later his family moved to Beirut, where he was educated in missionary schools. He attended college in Switzerland, and received a law degree at Lyons University in France. Pharaon married Noelie Cassar, heiress of a wealthy Maltese family from Jaffa, in 1922, while he was national tennis champion of Lebanon. They had one son, Naji Henri. For many generations the honorary-consuls to the imperial court in Vienna and the Austro-Hungarian Empire came from his family. He founded the "Austro-Lebanese Association of Friendship". Probably the richest man in Lebanon during much of his lifetime, he helped to found independent Lebanon and designed the Lebanese flag,[1][2] which in its colors looks similar to the red-white-red Flag of Austria. Known as a Mediterranianist who encouraged cooperation between Christians and Muslims, Pharaon opposed the pan-Arabist intentions of Riad El-Solh and helped temper the power of the Arab League. He served in the Lebanese Parliament from 1943 to 1946, and then as the Lebanese foreign minister intermittently from 1945 to 1947. After this he retired from politics to focus on business interests. During the Lebanese Civil War of 1975-1990 Pharaoun took no side, preferring instead to broker peace between the warring factions. His business interests included Bank Pharaon and Chiha, both of which he founded. During the 1950s and 1960s he owned the world's biggest racing stable of Arabian horses. Pharaon was murdered in his bedroom at the Carlton Hotel in 1993. He was stabbed 16 times; his driver and bodyguard was also found stabbed over 20 times to death at the scene. Police released a statement including the possibility of robbery as a motive for stabbing the 92-year-old man so many repeated times. A man formerly employed by Pharaon as a bodyguard was arrested for his murder.[3] Pharaoun's former house in Beirut One of their palaces in Beirut was one of the landmarks of that city, and was partly destroyed during the civil war and later sold to the Saudi royal family. His former Beirut residence is now the Robert Mouawad Private Museum, housing a collection of Arab, Greek and Byzantine antiquities. During his lifetime Pharaon gained an international reputation as a collector of art and antiquities, many of which he amassed at the mansion located at Beirut's Green Line. According to the New York Times, the residence is a "palace [which] resembles a Gothic castle with a hodgepodge of Greek and Roman statues and sarcophaguses in the walled garden."[4] Beirut[a] is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As of 2014, Greater Beirut has a population of 2.4 million,[5] which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, and was one of Phoenicia's most prominent city states, making it one of the oldest cities in the world (see Berytus). The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the Amarna letters from the New Kingdom of Egypt, which date to the 14th century BC. Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[6] Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War and the massive explosion in the Port of Beirut. Its cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Names 2 Prehistory 2.1 Prehistory 3 History 3.1 Phoenician period 3.2 Hellenistic period 3.3 Roman period 3.4 Middle Ages 3.5 Ottoman rule 3.5.1 Vilayet of Beirut 3.6 Modern era 3.6.1 Capital of Lebanon 4 Geography 4.1 Climate 4.2 Environmental issues 4.3 Quarters and sectors 5 Demographics 5.1 Religion 6 Beirut Central District 7 Economy 7.1 Banking and finance 7.2 Tourism 8 Government 8.1 International Organizations 9 Education 10 Transportation 11 Culture 11.1 Museums 11.2 Tourism 11.3 Media 11.4 Sports 11.5 Art and fashion 12 Gallery 13 Twin towns and sister cities 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Bibliography 17 External links Names The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt (بيروت). The same name's transcription into French is Beyrouth, which was sometimes used during Lebanon's French occupation. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician bēʾrūt (𐤁𐤀‏𐤓𐤕‎ bʾrt). This was a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word bīʾrōt later bēʾrūt, meaning "wells", in reference to the site's accessible water table.[10][11] The name is first attested in the 14th century BC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform[11] tablets of the Amarna letters,[12] letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta[13] to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt.[14] Biruta was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.[15] The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós (Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός), which the Romans latinised as Berytus.[b] When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors. At the time of the crusades, the city was known in French as Barut or Baruth. Prehistory Canaanean Blade. Suggested to be part of a javelin. Fresh grey flint, both sides showing pressure flaking. Somewhat narrower at the base, suggesting a haft. Polished at the extreme point. Found on land of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. Prehistory Beirut was settled over 5,000 years ago,[17] and there is evidence that the surrounding area had already been inhabited for tens of thousands of years prior to this. Several prehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools from sequential periods dating from the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Beirut I (Minet el-Hosn) was listed as "the town of Beirut" (French: Beyrouth ville) by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orient and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut.[18][19] The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[20] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[21] Beirut II (Umm el-Khatib) was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres (328 feet) above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.[21] Beirut III (Furn esh-Shebbak), listed as Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland.[21] P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area.[22] Beirut IV (Furn esh-Shebbak, river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[20] Raoul Describes[23] and Auguste Bergy.[22] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. Many Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Beirut V (Nahr Beirut, Beirut River) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[24] The area has now been built on.[25] Beirut VI (Patriarchate) was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library.[21] Beirut VII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland, Peter Wescombe, and Marina Hayek in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[21] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[26] History ‹ The template below (For timeline) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Beirut. The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman remains.[27] Phoenician period Main article: Phoenician port of Beirut The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbour was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city.[28] Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching in Marburg, Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.[29][30][31] Hellenistic period In 140 BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon during his conflict with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the civil war 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings.[32] Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune;[33] on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, King Tigranes the Great of the Kingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after the Battle of Tigranocerta, Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman general Pompey. Roman period Roman Columns of Basilica near the Forum of Berytus Main article: Berytus Laodicea was conquered by Pompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[34][35][36] From the 1st century BC, the Bekaa Valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for Rome itself. Under Claudius, Berytus expanded to reach the Bekaa Valley and include Heliopolis (Baalbek). The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region. As a result of this settlement, the city quickly became Romanized, and the city became the only mainly Latin-speaking area in the Syria-Phoenicia province.[37] In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colony, one of four in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Italian rights (ius Italicum) exempting its citizens from imperial taxation. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[37] Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic Legions.[38] Berytus's law school was widely known;[39] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, were natives of Phoenicia and taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD 533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. In 551, a major earthquake struck Berytus,[11][34][40] causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements.[41] As a result, the students of the law school were transferred to Sidon.[42] Salvage excavations since 1993 have yielded new insights in the layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes, Colonnaded Streets, a circus and theatre;[32] residential areas were excavated in the Garden of Forgiveness, Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks.[43] View of Beirut with snow-capped Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century Middle Ages Beirut was conquered by the Muslims in 635.[35][44] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin el Fil in Beirut in 759. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon.[citation needed] As a trading center of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre (in modern-day Israel) during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291, the town and Lordship of Beirut was part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was taken by Saladin in 1187 and recaptured in 1197 by Henry I of Brabant as part of the German Crusade of 1197. John of Ibelin, known as the Old Lord of Beirut, was granted the lordship of the city in 1204. He rebuilt the city after its destruction by the Ayyubids and also built the House of Ibelin palace in Beirut.[44] Beirut Castle and waterfront, 1868 In 1291 Beirut was captured and the Crusaders expelled by the Mamluk army of Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil. Ottoman rule Pine Forest of Beirut, 1914 Under the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon. Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[45] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[46] With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading center in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[47] Beirut began its revival. View of Beirut's Grand Serail- circa 1930 By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial center. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[48] This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[49] After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor of Syria Vilayet Mehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council,[50] the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of the Empire.[51] The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades.[50] Vilayet of Beirut In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[52] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[53] By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners.[46] At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city. An aerial panoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century In his 2003 book entitled Beirut and its Seven Families, Dr. Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says: The seven families of Beirut are the families who bonded among each other and made the famous historical agreement with the governor of the Syrian Coast in 1351 to protect and defend the city of Beirut and its shores, and chase the invaders and stop their progress towards it. Modern era Capital of Lebanon Saint Nicholas staircase in Ashrafieh Ras Beirut and the Mediterranean Sea Nightlife scene in Badaro After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven,[54][55] especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country,[56][57] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[58] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled the eastern quarter of the city,[59] but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.[60][61][62] Between 1989 and 1990 parts on East Beirut were destroyed in fighting between army units loyal to General Aoun and Samir Geagea’s Lebanese Forces. Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development[63] stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a center for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016. Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut.[64][65] A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut.[66][67] The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[68] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[69] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[70] During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the "Operation Truthful Promise" carried out by Hezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response, the IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006 Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways at Beirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon.[71] In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army.[72] After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square.[73] On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighborhood of Achrafiyeh, including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces. In addition, 78 others were wounded in the bombing.[74] It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008.[75] On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others.[76] In the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings, two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks.[77][78] On 4 August 2020, a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing)[79] and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108 Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of the blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and stored ammonium nitrate.[80] As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion.[81] Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion.[82] On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced his resignation.[83] Weeks later, a huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020.[84] Geography Pigeon Rock (Raouché) Beirut from the International Space Station Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea.[85] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[85] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another. Climate Beirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) characterized by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea. Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter is mild and rainy. Summer is prolonged, hot and muggy. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea. The average annual rainfall is 825 millimetres (32.5 in), with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes. Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter. Climate data for Beirut International Airport Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 27.9 (82.2) 30.5 (86.9) 36.6 (97.9) 39.3 (102.7) 39.0 (102.2) 40.0 (104.0) 40.4 (104.7) 39.5 (103.1) 37.5 (99.5) 37.0 (98.6) 33.1 (91.6) 30.0 (86.0) 40.4 (104.7) Average high °C (°F) 17.4 (63.3) 17.5 (63.5) 19.6 (67.3) 22.6 (72.7) 25.4 (77.7) 27.9 (82.2) 30.0 (86.0) 30.7 (87.3) 29.8 (85.6) 27.5 (81.5) 23.2 (73.8) 19.4 (66.9) 24.3 (75.7) Daily mean °C (°F) 14.0 (57.2) 14.0 (57.2) 16.0 (60.8) 18.7 (65.7) 21.7 (71.1) 24.9 (76.8) 27.1 (80.8) 27.8 (82.0) 26.8 (80.2) 24.1 (75.4) 19.5 (67.1) 15.8 (60.4) 20.9 (69.6) Average low °C (°F) 11.2 (52.2) 11.0 (51.8) 12.6 (54.7) 15.2 (59.4) 18.2 (64.8) 21.6 (70.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.8 (76.6) 23.7 (74.7) 21.0 (69.8) 16.3 (61.3) 12.9 (55.2) 17.7 (63.9) Record low °C (°F) 0.8 (33.4) 3.0 (37.4) 0.2 (32.4) 7.6 (45.7) 10.0 (50.0) 15.0 (59.0) 18.0 (64.4) 19.0 (66.2) 17.0 (62.6) 11.1 (52.0) 7.0 (44.6) 4.6 (40.3) 0.2 (32.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 154 (6.1) 127 (5.0) 84 (3.3) 31 (1.2) 11 (0.4) 1 (0.0) 0.3 (0.01) 0 (0) 5 (0.2) 60 (2.4) 115 (4.5) 141 (5.6) 730 (28.7) Average rainy days 12 10 8 5 2 2 0.04 0.1 1 4 7 11 62 Average relative humidity (%) 64 64 64 66 70 71 72 71 65 62 60 63 66 Average dew point °C (°F) 7 (45) 8 (46) 9 (48) 12 (54) 16 (61) 19 (66) 22 (72) 22 (72) 19 (66) 16 (61) 11 (52) 8 (46) 14 (57) Mean monthly sunshine hours 131 143 191 243 310 348 360 334 288 245 200 147 2,940 Source 1: Pogodaiklimat.ru[86] Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun 1931–1960)[87] Source 3: Time and Date (dewpoints, between 1985-2015)[88] Beirut mean sea temperature[89] Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 21.3 °C (70.3 °F) 24.9 °C (76.8 °F) 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) 28.1 °C (82.6 °F) 26.0 °C (78.8 °F) 22.6 °C (72.7 °F) 20.1 °C (68.2 °F) Environmental issues Main article: Marine environmental issues in Lebanon Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered a massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on the country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called "You Stink" which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government finally came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than the central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area.[90] Quarters and sectors Main article: List of places in Beirut Map of the 12 quarters of Beirut Beirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):[91] Achrafieh Dar Mreisse Bachoura Mazraa (with the neighbourhood Badaro) Medawar (with the neighbourhood Mar Mikhaël) Minet El Hosn Moussaitbeh (with Ramlet al-Baida) Port Ras Beirut Remeil Saifi Zuqaq al-Blat These quarters are divided into 59 sectors (secteurs).[92] Badaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighborhood,[citation needed] within the green district of Beirut (secteur du parc) which also include the Beirut Hippodrome and the Beirut Pine Forest and the French ambassador's Pine Residence. It is one of Beirut's favorite hip nightlife destination.[citation needed] Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh and Shatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias.[93] Southern suburban districts include Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital.[93] Of the 15 unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut[94] and was the scene of a massacre during the civil war.[95] People in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks are more commonly used.[citation needed] Demographics No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[96] but estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940[97] through 1,303,129[98] to as high as 2,200,000 as part of Greater Beirut.[99][100] Religion See also: Religion in Lebanon, Shia Islam in Lebanon, Sunni Islam in Lebanon, Christianity in Lebanon, Secularism in Lebanon, and Jews in Lebanon Religion in Beirut (2018 Elections Results)   Islam (60%)   Christianity (37.4%)   Druze (1.1%)   Judaism (0.9%)   Other (0.6%) Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[101] The city, which boasts substantial Muslim and Christian communities, hosts eighteen officially recognized religions:[102] three Islamic sects: Shi'a, Sunni, and 'Alawi; one Druze sect; twelve Christian sects: Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholics, Protestant Evangelicals, and other Christian denominations non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Assyrians (Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic), Copts (recognized since the civil war); and Jews (very few remain in Lebanon today, but children of Lebanese Jewish parents may register as citizens at Lebanese Embassies[103]). Christians comprise 35% of Beirut's population, Muslims 63%, Druze 1%, and others 1%. Church of Saint George Maronite and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque side by side in Downtown Beirut Church of Saint George Maronite and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque side by side in Downtown Beirut   Cathedral of St Elias and St Gregory the Illuminator in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St Elias and St Gregory the Illuminator in Downtown Beirut   Cathedral of St. George's Greek Orthodox in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St. George's Greek Orthodox in Downtown Beirut   Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Downtown Beirut Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Downtown Beirut Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict.[104] East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Shia, Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. The city is also home to a small number of Latin Rite Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar. Beirut Central District Main article: Beirut Central District The Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by "Solidere", the "vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country."[105] It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments.[106] Due to the devastation incurred on the city center from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organizations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city center.[107] Roman baths park in Downtown Beirut. Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centers.[108] The district's total area is 4,690,000 square metres (50,482,740 square feet), the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (1,924,000 square metres or 20,709,764 square feet).[109] The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totaling to an area of 96 acres (39 ha) of open spaces. The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterized the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades.[110] Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organizes music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival. However, the means of urban development in this particular area of the city was subject to much criticism and controversy. Rafic Hariri, who would later become prime minister, was the majority stakeholder of the company, which raises concerns of conflict of interest in the context of a public-private partnership.[111] Many of the expropriations that have made the project possible have been made at undervalued land rates, and partly paid in company share. Strict urbanization laws were put in order to oblige people to sell and not renovate themselves.[112] Today, Solidere acts as a de facto municipality, thus this quarter of the city is effectively privatized. It is for example forbidden to ride bikes on Zeituna Bay, a marina where many restaurants are located, and these laws are enforced by private security guards not national or municipal police. The project was also criticized for destroying some of the city's architectural and cultural heritage. "Among the hundreds of destroyed buildings were "the last Ottoman and medieval remains in Beirut" wrote American University of Beirut professor Nabil Beyhum in the Journal The Beirut Review in 1992. Much of the damage had been done through unapproved demolitions in the 1980s and early 1990s, bringing down "some of the capital's most significant buildings and structures," wrote UCLA professor Saree Makdisi in the journal, Critical Inquiry, in 1997.".[113] Moreover, many of the traditional privately owned shops in the Beirut Downtown were replaced by luxury outlets and high-end restaurants that only few people could afford. And most of public spaces promised by Solidere since the start of the reconstruction, such as "The Garden of Forgiveness", a central park, and an archaeological museum, remain unfinished until today,[when?] putting into question the actual benefit of the project to the population.[113] Finally, the actual success of the project has recently[when?] been in doubt, given that large quarters of the BCD are today empty, due to strong military presence, the Nejmeh Square where the parliament is located is most frequently completely deserted, and the business located there have mostly moved.[114] Economy Cafés in downtown Beirut Beirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism. In an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of libertarianism, though a precarious one.[citation needed] With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favorable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking center for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing).[115] The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[116] Zaitunay Bay Beirut is the focal point of the Economy of Lebanon. The capital hosts the headquarters of Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, the Beirut Stock Exchange, the head office of Lebanon's flag-carrier Middle East Airlines, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, the Union of Arab Banks, and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges.[117] Banking and finance System-search.svg The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about Lebanese Liquidity Crisis.. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ras Beirut 1983 The Banking System is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152 billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43 billion by the IMF.[118] Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125 billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. "Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research at BLOM Bank.[119] Beirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5 billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves. [120] The Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial center, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the "secret of the profession". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution.[121] Tourism Raouché The tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as the "Paris of the Middle East,"[122] often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience the Levantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. However, in recent times, certain countries, such as the United States, have frequently placed Lebanon, and Beirut in particular, on their travel warnings lists due to the many car bombings and orchestrated acts of political violence.[123][124][125] Pigeon Rocks Sunset According to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within the Arab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from the Americas (about half of which are from the United States).[126] The largely pedestrianized Beirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture and Venetian Gothic architecture mixed with Arabesque and Ottoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of the Roman era. The District contains dozens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly in Beirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade. Another popular tourist destination in Beirut is the Corniche Beirut, a 4.8 km (3 mi) pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from the Saint George Bay in the north all the way to Avenue de Paris and Avenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum height above sea level at Raouché, a high-rise residential neighbourhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognisable off-shore Raouché Rocks. Badaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighborhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a 75-acre (30-hectare) public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a 50-acre (20-hectare) hippodrome. It is a neighborhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighborhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30s and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties.[citation needed] Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area.[citation needed] There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and footpath cafés of virtually every style.[citation needed] Badaro "Village" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates.[citation needed] Hamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting the Beirut Central District with the coastal Raouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, footpath cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighboring American University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking the Mediterranean. Gemmayzeh is Beirut's artistic bohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from the French era. It is located East of the Beirut Central District, bordering the Saifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located on Rue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district. Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh "SoHo by the Sea," due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops.[127] However, Gemmayzeh received the most damage by the Beirut explosion in 2020.[128] Downtown Beirut Mosque Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[129] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked the 9th best city in the world.[130] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[131] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[132] 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5 billion.[133] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai.[134] Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[135] Like other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighboring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more Southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organized, quality medical destination.[136] Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible.[137] Cosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialized procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012.[138] Government Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[139] The Lebanese Parliament,[140] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[141] Beirut Governorate is one of eight mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, or governorate). Name Took office Left office 1 Kamel Hamieh 1936 1941 2 Nicholas Rizk 1946 1952 3 George Assi 1952 1956 4 Bachour Haddad 1956 1958 5 Philip Boulos 1959 1960 6 Emile Yanni 1960 1967 7 Shafic Bou Haydar 1967 1977 8 Mitri El Nammar 1977 1987 9 George Smaha 1987 1991 10 Nayef El Malouf 1992 1995 11 Nicholas Saba 1995 1999 12 Jacob Sarraf 1999 2005 13 Nassif Kaloush 2005 2008 14 Rachid Ammoury Maalouf 2008 2015 15 Jamal Itani 2016 Present Facade of the Beirut City Hall Facade of the Beirut City Hall   The Grand Serail The Grand Serail   Lebanese Parliament Lebanese Parliament   United Nations Lebanon headquarters United Nations Lebanon headquarters International Organizations The city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[142][143] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[144] the Union of Arab Banks[145] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[146] and the World youth alliance are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[147] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[148] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world. Education Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes. The American University of Beirut and Université Saint-Joseph (USJ), are the oldest respectively English medium and French medium universities in the country. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[149] Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies and considered lately one of the top universities in the Middle East.[150][151][152][153][154] Beirut is also home to the American University of Science and Technology (AUST), University of Balamand, École Supérieure des Affaires (ESA), Beirut Arab University (BAU), Haigazian University (HU), Lebanese International University (LIU), as well as the Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU), Université La Sagesse (ULS). Notre Dame University (NDU)'s degrees are becoming more and more valuable with time. NDU received its accreditation from NIASC in 2015. The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.[149] Among the private secondary schools in Beirut are Lycee Abdel Kader, Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, American Community School, International College, Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[155] Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, Collège Protestant Français, Armenian Evangelical Central High School, German School of Beirut, and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College. AUB established in 1866 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions AUB established in 1866 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions   Saint Joseph University, or Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875 Saint Joseph University, or Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875   American University of Science and Technology, established in Beirut in 1989 American University of Science and Technology, established in Beirut in 1989   Haigazian University was founded in 1955 by the Armenian Evangelical community Haigazian University was founded in 1955 by the Armenian Evangelical community   Global University in Beirut Global University in Beirut   École supérieure des affaires, founded in 1996 as a joint co-operation between the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) and the Bank of Lebanon École supérieure des affaires, founded in 1996 as a joint co-operation between the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) and the Bank of Lebanon Transportation Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[156] Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[157] The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars.[citation needed] Beirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company. In 2017, Beirut introduced a bike sharing service in certain areas of the city. Culture The Garden Show & Spring Festival at the Beirut Hippodrome The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[158][159] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.[160][161] In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.[162] Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[163] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[164] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as "The Alleyway" in Hamra Street. Museums The National Museum of Beirut Sursock Museum The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[165] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artefacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries.[166] Sursock Museum was built by the illustrious Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa for Nicolas Sursock, and then donated to the Lebanese state upon his death. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings, numerous works of Islamic art and classic Italian paintings, while temporary exhibitions are also shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.[167][168] Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[169] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[170] In October 2013, Mim Museum, a private mineral museum, opened its doors to the public. It has on display some 2000 minerals from more than 70 countries. Mim museum's collection is considered to be one of the world's paramount private collection for the variety and quality of its minerals.[171][172] A didactic circuit, accompanied by screens showing films and scientific applications of mineralogy, will reveal a world of unsuspected marvels—priceless both from an aesthetic and scientific point of view. Mimodactylus libanensis "mimo", the fossil of a pterodactyl is featured in a special wing. This one-of-a-kind complete specimen in the Middle-East was found in Lebanon. It is promoted by means of state-of-the-art modern techniques: a hologram, an auto-stereoscopic movie, a full-scale reconstitution and a game "fly with mimo" – an entertainment that delights children and adults. Moreover, Mim hosts a thematic exhibition of 200 marine fossils. "Fish’n’Stone" was organised with the collaboration of Mémoire du Temps. Known throughout the world, those fossils were quarried in the Lebanese mountains. The history of the fossil formation is shown through an animation that submerses you in the marine life – a time capsule that takes you in a journey to some 100 million of years ago. Tourism Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[132] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.[173] According to a 2010 study by the American global consulting firm Mercer comparing high-end items such as upscale residential areas and entertainment venues, Beirut was ranked as the 4th most expensive city in the Middle East and 15th among the Upper Middle Income Countries included in the survey.[174] Beirut came in first place regionally and 10th place internationally in a 2010 study by "EuroCost International" about the rental markets for high quality housing.[175][176] Beirut is an international hub of highly active and diverse nightlife with bars, dance bars and nightclubs staying open well past midnight.[177][178] The 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5 billion.[133] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East.[134] In 2013, Condé Nast Traveller ranked Beirut in the top 20 best cities in the world.[179] On 7 December 2014, Beirut was selected to be among the New 7 Wonders of Cities, along with Doha, Durban, La Paz, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan.[180] The campaign was held by New 7 Wonders.[181] In 2016, Yahoo listed Beirut as the best international city for food.[182] Travel and Leisure ranked Beirut in the top 15 World's best cities.[183] It was voted the must-visit city for the year 2019 by World Tourists.[citation needed] Media Beirut is a main center for the television, radio stations, newspaper, and book publishing industries. Television stations based in Beirut include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, Tele Lumiere (Catholic TV), Future TV, New TV, NBN, ANB and Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, Fox, Al Jazeera, Rotana, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF. Radio Stations include Mix FM Lebanon, Virgin Radio Lebanon, Radio One Lebanon, Sawt el Ghad, RLL, Jaras Scoop, NRJ Lebanon... Newspapers include Daily Beirut An-Nahar, Al Joumhouria, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al-Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq. Newspapers and magazines published in French include L'Orient Le Jour (since 1970), La Revue Du Liban, Al Balad-French Version, Al Intiqad, Magazine L'Hebdo and La Commerce Du Levant. English newspapers published in Beirut are The Daily Star, Executive Magazine (weekly), Beirut Online, Beirut Times (weekly) and Monday Morning. Sports The Lebanese capital hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1959, FIBA Asia Champions Cup in 1999, 2000, 2012, the AFC Asian Cup in 2000, and the FIBA Asia Cup in 2010. Beirut was the host city for the 6th Annual Games of the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Beirut also hosted the Pan Arab Games in 1957, 1997, and did so again in 2015. In 2017, Beirut also hosted the 2017 FIBA Asia Cup. Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup.[184][185] There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium. Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently, 4 Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Homenetmen Beirut and Beirut. Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut. Lebanon men's national ice hockey team plays out of Montreal, in Canada. Art and fashion Beirut Souks shopping mall There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. The inauguration of the Beirut Art Center, a non-profit association, space and platform dedicated to contemporary art in Lebanon,[186] in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, book store, café and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs. A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[187] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Yara Farhat, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[187] Beirut is also the home for a dynamic street art scene that has developed after the Lebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists is Yazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such as Gemmayzeh, Hamra, Verdun and Achrafieh.[188] Beirut is also international artists' concert tour stop city. Artists like Shakira, Mariah Carey, Enrique Iglesias, Andrea Bocelli, Pitbull, Engelbert Humperdinck, Scorpions, and many more have included Beirut on their concert tours. Gallery Beirut 1913 Beirut 1913   Aerial view of Beirut -1970. Aerial view of Beirut -1970.   Beirut 1965   Beirut Corniche Beirut Corniche   Cliffs, Beirut Cliffs, Beirut   Beirut 1919   Martyrs' Monument Martyrs' Monument   Central Beirut Central Beirut   Passage, Beirut Passage, Beirut   Beirut at Night Beirut at Night Twin towns and sister cities Beirut is twinned with:[189] GreeceAthens, Greece United StatesLos Angeles, United States FranceParis, France ArmeniaYerevan, Armenia[190][191] ZambiaLusaka, Zambia See also Beirut International Exhibition & Leisure Center Beirut Explosion 2020 Notes  /beɪˈruːt/ bay-ROOT;[4] Arabic: بيروت, romanized: Bayrūt, French: Beyrouth  The Roman name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut.[16] Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn, -nən/ Listen LEB-ə-non, -⁠nən, Arabic: لُبْنَان, romanized: lubnān, Lebanese Arabic pronunciation: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Republic of Lebanon or the Lebanese Republic,[a] is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lies to its west across the Mediterranean Sea; its location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has contributed to its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious diversity.[16] It is part of the Levant region of the Middle East. Lebanon is home to roughly six million people and covers an area of 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi), making it one of the smallest countries in the world. The official language of the state is Arabic, while French is also formally recognized; the Lebanese dialect of Arabic is used alongside Modern Standard Arabic throughout the country. The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back over 7000 years, predating recorded history.[17] Modern-day Lebanon was home to the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for almost 3000 years (c. 3200–539 BCE). In 64 BCE, the Roman Empire conquered the region, and it eventually became among the empire's leading centers of Christianity.[18] The Mount Lebanon range saw the emergence of a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church. Upon the region's conquest by the early Arab Muslims, the Maronites held onto their religion and identity. However, a new religious group known as the Druze eventually established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church and asserted their communion with Rome. The Maronite Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[19] Lebanon was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century and remained under its rule for the next 400 years. Following the empire's collapse after World War I, the five Ottoman provinces constituting modern-day Lebanon came under the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, under which its French-ruled predecessor state of Greater Lebanon was established. Following the invasion and occupation of the French Third Republic by Nazi Germany during World War II, French rule over the region weakened. Upon gaining its independence from Free France in 1943, Lebanon established a unique confessionalist form of government, with the state's major religious sects being apportioned specific political powers. Lebanon initially was relatively stable.[20] This stability was short-lived and was ultimately shattered by the outbreak of large-scale fighting in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) between various political and sectarian factions. During this period, Lebanon was also subjected to overlapping foreign military occupations by Syria from 1976 to 2005 and by Israel from 1985 to 2000. Since the end of the war, there have been extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[21] Lebanon is a developing country, ranking 92nd on the Human Development Index and among the highest in the Arab world outside of the oil-rich economies of the Persian Gulf.[22] It has been classified as an upper middle income state.[23] However, the Lebanese liquidity crisis, corruption as well as recent events have precipitated the collapse of currency, political instability, widespread shortages, high unemployment and poverty.[24] Despite the country's small size,[25] Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Middle East and globally, primarily powered by its extensive diaspora. Lebanon is a founding member of the United Nations and is a member of the Arab League, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Ancient Lebanon 2.2 Medieval Lebanon 2.3 Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate 2.4 Independence from France 2.5 Civil war (1975–1990) and occupation (1976–2005) 2.6 Lebanon (2005–present) 2.6.1 Instability and Syrian War spillover 2.6.2 2019–2021 crisis 2.6.3 2022 election 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Environment 4 Government and politics 4.1 Law 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Military 4.4 LGBT rights 4.5 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 History 5.2 Tourism 6 Infrastructure 6.1 Education 6.2 Health 7 Demographics 7.1 Religion 7.2 Language 8 Culture 8.1 Arts 8.2 Literature 8.3 Music 8.4 Media and cinema 8.5 Holidays and festivals 8.6 Cuisine 8.7 Sports 8.8 Science and technology 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Works cited 11.3 General references 12 External links Etymology The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn (𐤋𐤁𐤍) meaning "white", apparently from its snow-capped peaks.[26] Occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla,[27] and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn (𓂋𓏠𓈖𓈖𓈉), where R stood for Canaanite L.[28] The name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן.[29] Lebanon as the name of an administrative unit (as opposed to the mountain range) that was introduced with the Ottoman reforms of 1861, as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate (Arabic: متصرفية جبل لبنان; Turkish: Cebel-i Lübnan Mutasarrıflığı), continued in the name of the State of Greater Lebanon (Arabic: دولة لبنان الكبير Dawlat Lubnān al-Kabīr; French: État du Grand Liban) in 1920, and eventually in the name of the sovereign Republic of Lebanon (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Lubnānīyah) upon its independence in 1943. History Main article: History of Lebanon This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Lebanon" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. Its territory was in the core of the Bronze Age Canaanite (Phoenician) city-states. As part of the Levant, it was part of numerous succeeding empires throughout ancient history, including the Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Sasanid Persian empires. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid Seljuk and Fatimid empires. The crusader state of the County of Tripoli, founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1102, encompassed most of present-day Lebanon, falling to the Mamluk Sultanate in 1289 and finally to the Ottoman Empire in 1516.[30] With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920,[31] and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of relative political stability and prosperity based on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade, interspersed with political turmoil and armed conflict (1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanese Civil War 1975–1990, 2005 Cedar Revolution, 2006 Lebanon War, 2007 Lebanon conflict, 2006–08 Lebanese protests, 2008 conflict in Lebanon, 2011 Syrian Civil War spillover, and 2019–20 Lebanese protests).[32] Ancient Lebanon Main article: History of ancient Lebanon Map of Phoenicia and trade routes Evidence dating back to an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, considered among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[17] The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[33] Lebanon was part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants, the Phoenicians, a seafaring people who spread across the Mediterranean in the first millennium BC.[34] The most prominent Phoenician cities were Byblos, Sidon and Tyre, while their most famous colonies were Carthage in present-day Tunisia and Cádiz in present-day Spain. The Phoenicians are credited with the invention of the oldest verified alphabet, which subsequently inspired the Greek alphabet and the Latin one thereafter.[citation needed] The cities of Phoenicia were incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE.[35] The Phoenician city-states were later incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great following the Siege of Tyre in 332 BC.[35] In 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey the Great had the region of Syria annexed into the Roman Republic. The region was then split into two Imperial Provinces under the Roman Empire, Coele Syria and Phoenice, the latter which the land of present day Lebanon was apart of. Medieval Lebanon The Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289 The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the faith. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism, near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region. These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.[36] During the frequent Roman-Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries, the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629.[37] During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Byzantines. Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace nonetheless only gradually converted from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community, in particular, managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria. The relative (but not complete) isolation of the Lebanese mountains meant the mountains served as a refuge in the times of religious and political crises in the Levant. As such, the mountains displayed religious diversity and existence of several well established sects and religions, notably, Maronites, Druze, Shiite Muslims, Ismailis, Alawites and Jacobites. Byblos is believed to have been first occupied between 8800 and 7000 BC[38] and continuously inhabited since 5000 BC,[39] making it among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[40][41] It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[42] During the 11th century the Druze religion emerged from a branch of Shia Islam. The new religion gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The southern portion of Mount Lebanon was ruled by Druze feudal families to the early 14th century. The Maronite population increased gradually in Northern Mount Lebanon and the Druze have remained in Southern Mount Lebanon until the modern era. Keserwan, Jabal Amel and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire. Major cities on the coast, Sidon, Tyre, Acre, Tripoli, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture. Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks from Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant). The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.[43] These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region, though their control was limited, and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks. Among the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e., the French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region. Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate See also: Emirate of Mount Lebanon, Sidon Eyalet, and Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate During this period Lebanon was divided into several provinces: Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon, Tripoli, Baalbek and Beqaa Valley, and Jabal Amel. Fakhreddine II Palace, 17th century In southern Mount Lebanon in 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became the successor to Korkmaz. He soon established his authority as paramount prince of the Druze in the Shouf area of Mount Lebanon. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sanjakbey (Governor) of several Ottoman sub-provinces, with responsibility for tax-gathering. He extended his control over a substantial part of Mount Lebanon and its coastal area, even building a fort as far inland as Palmyra.[44] This over-reaching eventually became too much for Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, who sent a punitive expedition to capture him in 1633. He was taken to Istanbul, kept in prison for two years and then executed along with one of his sons in April 1635.[45] Surviving members of Fakhr al-Din's family ruled a reduced area under closer Ottoman control until the end of the 17th century. 1862 map drawn by the French expedition of Beaufort d'Hautpoul,[46] later used as a template for the 1920 borders of Greater Lebanon.[47][48] On the death of the last Maan emir, various members of the Shihab clan ruled Mount Lebanon until 1830. The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence,[49][50][51][52] with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war; Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druzes during inter-communal violence in 1860.[53] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mount Lebanon, which lasted about 400 years, was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique. The Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate[54][55][56] (1861–1918, Arabic: متصرفية جبل لبنان; Turkish: Cebel-i Lübnan Mutasarrıflığı) was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the Tanzimat reform. After 1861 there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian mutasarrıf, which had been created as a homeland for the Maronites under European diplomatic pressure following the 1860 massacres. The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[57] The Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families, especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region. Youssef Bey Karam,[58] a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era. Around 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died of starvation during World War I.[59] In 1920, following World War I, the area of the Mutasarrifate, plus some surrounding areas which were predominantly Shia and Sunni, became a part of the state of Greater Lebanon under the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon.[59] In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites. On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.[60] Lebanon was a largely Christian country (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims and Druze.[61] On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. Independence from France Map of the French Mandate and the states created in 1920 Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany.[62] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.[63] After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by imprisoning the new government. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943. The allies occupied the region until the end of World War II. Martyrs' Square in Beirut during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from Rashayya prison on 22 November 1943 Following the end of World War II in Europe the French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League of Nations or its successor the United Nations. The mandate was ended by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations. Article 78 of the UN Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: "The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality."[64] So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members, as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states, the French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained.[65] The last French troops withdrew in December 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shia Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox.[66] Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[67] In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighboring Arab countries in a war against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[68] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[69] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defense, Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[70] 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war. Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire.[71] As of 2017 between 174,000 and 450,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon with about half in refugee camps (although these are often decades old and resemble neighborhoods).[72] Palestinians often cannot obtain Lebanese citizenship or even Lebanese identity cards and are legally barred from owning property or performing certain occupations (including law, medicine, and engineering).[73] According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions." In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on 15 July. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab. With the 1970 defeat of the PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their armed campaign against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians versus the Maronites and other Lebanese factions. Civil war (1975–1990) and occupation (1976–2005) Main articles: Lebanese Civil War, Syrian occupation of Lebanon, and Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon Demonstrators calling for the withdrawal of Syrian forces. In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, largely boosted by Palestinian militant relocation into South Lebanon, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976, Lebanese President Elias Sarkis asked for the Syrian Army to intervene on the side of the Christians and help restore peace.[74] In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force, which was charged with restoring calm.[75] The Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982 PLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 escalated tensions between the countries. On 11 March 1978, eleven Fatah fighters landed on a beach in northern Israel and hijacked two buses full of passengers on the Haifa – Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the Coastal Road massacre. They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before being killed in a firefight with Israeli forces.[76] Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in Operation Litani. The Israeli Army occupied most of the area south of the Litani River. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with attempting to establish peace. Map showing the Blue Line demarcation line between Lebanon and Israel, established by the UN after the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 1978 Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but retained control of the southern region by managing a 19-kilometre-wide (12 mi) security zone along the border. These positions were held by the South Lebanon Army (SLA), a Christian militia under the leadership of Major Saad Haddad backed by Israel. The Israeli Prime Minister, Likud's Menachem Begin, compared the plight of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to that of European Jews during World War II.[77] The PLO routinely attacked Israel during the period of the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks.[citation needed] People in Galilee regularly had to leave their homes during these shellings. Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon.[78] Arafat refused to condemn these attacks on the grounds that the cease-fire was only relevant to Lebanon.[79] In April 1980 the presence of UNIFIL soldiers in the buffer zone led to the At Tiri incident. On 17 July 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. The Lebanese delegate to the United Nations Security Council claimed that 300 civilians had been killed and 800 wounded. The bombing led to worldwide condemnation, and a temporary embargo on the export of U.S. aircraft to Israel.[80] In August 1981, defense minister Ariel Sharon began to draw up plans to attack PLO military infrastructure in West Beirut, where PLO headquarters and command bunkers were located.[81] Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1983: Green – controlled by Syria, purple – controlled by Christian groups, yellow – controlled by Israel, blue – controlled by the UN In 1982, the PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion, aiming to support Lebanese forces in driving out the PLO. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. The civil war re-emerged in September 1982 after the assassination of Lebanese President Bashir Gemayel, an Israeli ally, and subsequent fighting. During this time a number of sectarian massacres occurred, such as in Sabra and Shatila, and in several refugee camps.[82] The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year. In the late 1980s, as Amine Gemayel’s second term as President drew to an end, the Lebanese Lira collapsed. At the end of 1987 a US Dollar was worth 500 Lira. This meant the legal minimum wage was worth $17 a month. Most goods in shops were priced in dollars and a Save the Children director estimated that 2-300,000 children were need of assistance and were living almost entirely on bread which was subsidized by the government. Those that could depended on foreign assistance. Hizbullah was receiving about $3-5 million a month from Iran.[83] In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians, Muslims, and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi–Moroccan–Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return.[75] In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalization of the Lebanese political system.[75] The civil war ended at the end of 1990 after sixteen years; it had caused massive loss of human life and property, and devastated the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[84] Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war, and some never returned.[85] Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[86] The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines. Conflict between Israel and Lebanese militants continued, leading to a series of violent events and clashes including the Qana massacre.[87][88][89][90] In May 2000, Israeli forces fully withdrew from Lebanon.[91][88][92] Since then, 25 May is regarded by the Lebanese as the Liberation Day.[93][94][88] Lebanon (2005–present) The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of former president Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.[95] On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion.[96] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,[97] while Syria and the March 8 Alliance claimed that Israel was behind the assassination. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.[nb 5] The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing,[98] and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.[99] UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination.[100] The UN International Independent Investigation Commission published preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.[101][102][103][104] On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured two others.[105] Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War. The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire.[106] Some 1,191 Lebanese[107] and 160 Israelis[108] were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes.[109] Instability and Syrian War spillover Main articles: Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon, 2011 Lebanese protests, and 17 October Revolution Demonstrations in Lebanon triggered by the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on 14 February 2005 In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.[110] Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut,[111] leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon.[112] The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.[113] At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.[114] On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting.[111][114] As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,[115] Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.[111] The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.[114] Over 20,000 Syrian and Palestinian refugees live in the Shatila refugee camp on the outskirts of Beirut. In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.[116] The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.[117] Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.[118] A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in case the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members.[119] In 2012, the Syrian civil war threatened to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.[120] According to UNHCR, the number of Syrian refugees in Lebanon increased from around 250,000 in early 2013 to 1,000,000 in late 2014.[121] In 2013, The Lebanese Forces Party, the Kataeb Party and the Free Patriotic Movement voiced concerns that the country's sectarian based political system is being undermined by the influx of Syrian refugees.[122] On 6 May 2015, UNHCR suspended registration of Syrian refugees at the request of the Lebanese government.[123] In February 2016, the Lebanese government signed the Lebanon Compact, granting a minimum of €400 million of support for refugees and vulnerable Lebanese citizens.[124] As of October 2016, the government estimates that the country hosts 1.5 million Syrians.[125] 2019–2021 crisis Main articles: 17 October Revolution and Lebanese liquidity crisis On 17 October 2019, the first of a series of mass civil demonstrations erupted;[126][127][128] they were initially triggered by planned taxes on gasoline, tobacco and online phone calls such as through WhatsApp,[129][130][131] but quickly expanded into a country-wide condemnation of sectarian rule,[132] a stagnant economy and liquidity crisis, unemployment, endemic corruption in the public sector,[132] legislation (such as banking secrecy) that is perceived to shield the ruling class from accountability[133][134] and failures from the government to provide basic services such as electricity, water and sanitation.[135] Women protesters forming a line between riot police and protesters in Riad el Solh, Beirut; 19 November 2019 As a result of the protests, Lebanon entered a political crisis, with Prime Minister Saad Hariri tendering his resignation and echoing protestors' demands for a government of independent specialists.[136] Other politicians targeted by the protests have remained in power. On 19 December 2019, former Minister of Education Hassan Diab was designated the next prime minister and tasked with forming a new cabinet.[137] Protests and acts of civil disobedience have since continued, with protesters denouncing and condemning the designation of Diab as prime minister.[138][139][140] Lebanon is suffering the worst economic crisis in decades.[141][142] Lebanon is the first country in the Middle East and North Africa to see its inflation rate exceed 50% for 30 consecutive days, according to Steve H. Hanke, professor of applied economics at the Johns Hopkins University.[143] On 4 August 2020, an explosion at the port of Beirut, Lebanon's main port, destroyed the surrounding areas, killing over 200 people, and injuring thousands more. The cause of the explosion was later determined to be 2,750 tonnes of ammonium nitrate that had been unsafely stored, and accidentally set on fire that Tuesday afternoon.[144] Protests resumed within days following the explosion, which resulted in the resignation of Prime Minister Hassan Diab and his cabinet on 10 August 2020, nonetheless continuing to stay in office in a caretaker capacity.[145] Demonstrations continued into 2021 with Lebanese blocking the roads with burned tires protesting against the poverty and the economic crisis. On 11 March 2021 the caretaker minister of energy Raymond Ghajar warned that Lebanon was threatened with "total darkness" at the end of March if no money was secured to buy fuel for power stations.[146] In August 2021, a large fuel explosion in northern Lebanon killed 28 people.[147] September saw the formation of a new cabinet led by former prime minister Najib Mikati.[148] On 9 October 2021, the entire nation lost power for 24 hours after its two main power stations ran out of power due to the currency and fuel shortage.[149] Days later, sectarian violence in Beirut killed a number of people in the deadliest clashes in the country since 2008.[150] By January 2022, BBC News reported that the crisis in Lebanon had deepened further, with the value of the Lebanese pound plummeting and a scheduled general election expected to be delayed indefinitely.[151] The postponement of parliamentary elections would prolong the political deadlock in Lebanon. The European Parliament has called Lebanon's present situation a 'man-made disaster caused by a handful of men across the political class'.[152] 2022 election Main article: 2022 Lebanese general election In May 2022, Lebanon held its first election since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a failed state. Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the United Nations. In the election Iran-backed Shia Muslim Hezbollah movement and its allies lost their parliamentary majority. Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats. Hezbollah’s ally, President Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election. A rival Christian party, led by Samir Geagea, with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the Lebanese Forces (LF), made gains. Sunni Future Movement, led by former prime minister Saad Hariri, did not participate the election, leaving a political vacuum to other Sunni politicians to fill.[153] [154] [155] Geography Main article: Geography of Lebanon Kadisha Valley, a view from Qannoubine Monastery Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N and longitudes 35° and 37° E. Its land straddles the "northwest of the Arabian plate".[156] The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean Sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.[157] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.[158] Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western Mount Lebanon and eastern Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains. The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. Lebanon's mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10 km (6 mi) and 56 km (35 mi); it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine. The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it is a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180 km (112 mi) long and 10 to 26 km (6 to 16 mi) wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft).[157] The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.[157] Lebanon has 16 rivers all of which are non navigable; 13 rivers originate from Mount Lebanon and run through the steep gorges and into the Mediterranean Sea, the other three arise in the Beqaa Valley.[159] Climate Main article: Climate of Lebanon Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.[157][160] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receives only little because of the rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.[161] Environment Main articles: Wildlife of Lebanon and Marine environmental issues in Lebanon The Lebanon cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon. 'Pilgrimage to the Cedars of Libanon' - painting by a Hungarian painter, Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar. In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees, the national emblem of the country.[162] Millennia of deforestation have altered the hydrology in Mount Lebanon and changed the regional climate adversely.[163] As of 2012, forests covered 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;[164] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.[165] As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.[166][167][168] Lebanon had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.76/10, ranking it 141st globally out of 172 countries.[169] In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20%, which is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.[170] The plan, which was funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and implemented by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), through the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI), was inaugurated in 2011 by planting cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir, oak and other seedlings, in ten regions around Lebanon.[170] As of 2016, forests covered 13.6% of Lebanon, and other wooded lands represented a further 11%.[171] Since 2011, over 600,000 trees, including cedars and other native species, have been planted throughout the country as part of the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI).[172] Lebanon contains two terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests and Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests.[173] Beirut and Mount Lebanon have been facing a severe garbage crisis. After the closure of the Bourj Hammoud dump in 1997, the al-Naameh dumpsite was opened by the government in 1998. The al-Naameh dumpsite was planned to contain 2 million tons of waste for a limited period of six years at the most. It was designed to be a temporary solution, while the government would have devised a long-term plan. Sixteen years later al-Naameh was still open and exceeded its capacity by 13 million tons. In July 2015 the residents of the area, already protesting in the recent years, forced the closure of the dumpsite. The inefficiency of the government, as well as the corruption inside of the waste management company Sukleen in charge of managing the garbage in Lebanon, have resulted in piles of garbage blocking streets in Mount Lebanon and Beirut.[174] Mount Lebanon is a mountain range in Lebanon. It averages above 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in elevation. In December 2015, the Lebanese government signed an agreement with Chinook Industrial Mining, part owned by Chinook Sciences, to export over 100,000 tons of untreated waste from Beirut and the surrounding area. The waste had accumulated in temporary locations following the government closure of the county's largest land fill site five months earlier. The contract was jointly signed with Howa International which has offices in the Netherlands and Germany. The contract is reported to cost $212 per ton. The waste, which is compacted and infectious, would have to be sorted and was estimated to be enough to fill 2,000 containers.[175][176][177][178] Initial reports that the waste was to be exported to Sierra Leone have been denied by diplomats.[179] In February 2016, the government withdrew from negotiations after it was revealed that documents relating to the export of the trash to Russia were forgeries.[180] On 19 March 2016, the Cabinet reopened the Naameh landfill for 60 days in line with a plan it passed few days earlier to end the trash crisis. The plan also stipulates the establishment of landfills in Bourj Hammoud and Costa Brava, east and south of Beirut respectively. Sukleen trucks began removing piled garbage from Karantina and heading to Naameh. Environment Minister Mohammad Machnouk announced during a chat with activists that over 8,000 tons of garbage had been collected up to that point in only 24 hours as part of the government's trash plan. The plan's execution was ongoing at last report.[181][182] In 2017, Human Rights Watch found that Lebanon's garbage crisis, and open burning of waste in particular, was posing a health risk to residents and violating the state's obligations under international law.[183] In September 2018, Lebanon's parliament passed a law that banned open dumping and burning of waste. Despite penalties set in case of violations, Lebanese municipalities have been openly burning the waste, putting the lives of people in danger. In October 2018, Human Rights Watch researchers witnessed the open burning of dumps in al-Qantara and Qabrikha.[184] On Sunday 13 October 2019 at night, a series of about 100 forest fires according to Lebanese Civil Defense, broke out and spread over large areas of Lebanon's forests. Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri confirmed his contact with a number of countries to send assistance via helicopters and firefighting planes,[185] Cyprus, Jordan, Turkey and Greece participated in firefighting. According to press reports on Tuesday (15 October), fire has decreased in different places due to the rains.[186] Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Lebanon and Human rights in Lebanon The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy that includes confessionalism,[187] in which high-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament Eastern Orthodox.[188][189] This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and to represent fairly the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.[190][191] Until 1975, Freedom House considered Lebanon to be among only two (together with Israel) politically free countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.[192] The country lost this status with the outbreak of the Civil War, and has not regained it since. Lebanon was rated "Partly Free" in 2013. Even so, Freedom House still ranks Lebanon as among the most democratic nations in the Arab world.[192] Until 2005, Palestinians were forbidden to work in over 70 jobs because they did not have Lebanese citizenship. After liberalization laws were passed in 2007, the number of banned jobs dropped to around 20.[71] In 2010, Palestinians were granted the same rights to work as other foreigners in the country.[193] Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon. Its 128 seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.[194] Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Agreement, which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[188] One of many protests in Beirut The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.[15] The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-thirds majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister,[195] following consultations with the parliament. The president and the prime minister form a cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. In an unprecedented move, the Lebanese parliament has extended its own term twice amid protests, the last being on 5 November 2014,[196] an act which comes in direct contradiction with democracy and article #42 of the Lebanese constitution as no elections have taken place.[8] Lebanon was without a President between May 2014 and October 2016.[197][198] Nationwide elections were finally scheduled for May 2018.[199] As of August 2019, the Lebanese cabinet included two ministers directly affiliated with Hezbollah, in addition to a close but officially non-member minister.[200] The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 15 May 2022.[201] Law There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts.[202] The Grand Serail in Beirut The Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (succession, marriage, divorce, adoption, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law.[203] For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims, personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court.[204] The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the French Civil Code.[203] Capital punishment is still de facto used to sanction certain crimes, but no longer enforced.[203] The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.[205] In 1990 article 95 was amended to provide that the parliament shall take necessary measures to abolish political structure based on religious affiliation, but that until such time only the highest positions in public civil service, including the judiciary, military, security forces, public and mixed institutions, shall be divided equally between Christians and Muslims without regard to the denominational affiliation within each community.[206] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Lebanon United Nations Lebanon headquarters in Beirut Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. It is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya and Syria), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in over 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophonie countries and hosted the Francophonie Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Military Main article: Lebanese Armed Forces Soldiers of the Lebanese army, 2009 The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,[207] including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.[208] The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.[209] Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.[210] With over $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.[211] LGBT rights Main article: LGBT rights in Lebanon Male homosexuality is illegal in Lebanon.[212] Discrimination against LGBT people in Lebanon is widespread.[213][214] According to 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 85% of Lebanese respondents believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[215] A gender and sexuality conference, held annually in Lebanon, since 2013, was moved abroad in 2019 after a religious group on Facebook called for the organizers’ arrest and the cancellation of the conference for "inciting immorality." General Security Forces shut down the 2018 conference and indefinitely denied non-Lebanese LGBT activists who attended the conference permission to re-enter the country.[216] Administrative divisions Main articles: Governorates of Lebanon, Districts of Lebanon, and Municipalities of Lebanon Lebanon is divided into nine governorates (muḥāfaẓāt, Arabic: محافظات; singular muḥāfaẓah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdyah, Arabic: أقضية; singular: qadāʾ Arabic: قضاء).[217] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: AkkarNorthAkkarMiniyeh- DanniyehZghartaKouraTripoliBsharriBatrounMount LebanonByblosKesrwanMatnBeirut♦BaabdaAleyChoufSouthJezzineSidonTyreBaalbek-HermelHermelBaalbekBeqaaZahleWestern BeqaaRashayaNabatiehHasbayaNabatiehMarjeyounBint Jbeil Corinthian capitals of the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek Beirut Governorate Beirut Governorate comprises the city of Beirut and is not divided into districts. Akkar Governorate Akkar Baalbek-Hermel Governorate Baalbek Hermel Beqaa Governorate Rashaya Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Zahle Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate Byblos (Jbeil) Keserwan Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan/Jabal Lebnen) Aley Baabda Chouf Matn Nabatieh Governorate (Jabal Amel) Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh North Governorate (ash-Shamal/shmel) Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta South Governorate (al-Janoub/Jnub) Jezzine Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Economy Main article: Economy of Lebanon A proportional representation of Lebanon exports, 2019 Lebanon's constitution states that 'the economic system is free and ensures private initiative and the right to private property'. Lebanon's economy follows a laissez-faire model.[218] Most of the economy is dollarized, and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.[218] The Lebanese government's intervention in foreign trade is minimal.[218] The Lebanese economy went through a significant expansion after the war of 2006, with growth averaging 9.1% between 2007 and 2010.[219] After 2011 the local economy was affected by the Syrian civil war, growing by a yearly average of 1.7% on the 2011–2016 period and by 1.5% in 2017.[219] In 2018, the size of the GDP was estimated to be $54.1 billion.[220] Lebanon has a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.[218] The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.[15] At the end 2008, finance minister Mohamad Chatah stated that the debt was going to reach $47 billion in that year and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur.[221] The Daily Star wrote that exorbitant debt levels have "slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects".[222] The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[223] Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[224] Remittances from Lebanese abroad total $8.2 billion[225] and account for one-fifth of the country's economy.[226] Lebanon has the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.[227] The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon. In 2001, Investment Law No.360[228] was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission. Beirut Central District The agricultural sector employs 12% of the total workforce.[229] Agriculture contributed to 5.9% of the country's GDP in 2011.[230] Lebanon's proportion of cultivable land is the highest in the Arab world,[231] Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[20] The commodities market in Lebanon includes substantial gold coin production, however according to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, they must be declared upon exportation to any foreign country.[232] Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.[233] Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[229] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[20] Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.[229] The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[20] However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.[21] Lebanese banks are high on liquidity and reputed for their security.[234] Lebanon was among only seven countries in the world where the value of the stock markets increased in 2008.[235] On 10 May 2013 the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese's sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered. Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with over 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone held up to 660 million barrels of oil and up to 30×1012 cu ft of gas.[236] The Syrian crisis has significantly affected Lebanese economic and financial situation. The demographic pressure imposed by the Syrian refugees now living in Lebanon has led to competition in the labour market. As a direct consequence unemployment has doubled in three years, reaching 20% in 2014. A loss of 14% of wages regarding the salary of less-skilled workers has also been registered. The financial constraints were also felt: the poverty rate increased with 170,000 Lebanese falling under the poverty threshold. In the period between 2012 and 2014, the public spending increased by $1 billion and losses amounted to $7.5 billion. Expenditures related only to the Syrian refugees were estimated by the Central Bank of Lebanon as $4.5 billion every year.[237] History In the 1950s, GDP growth was the second highest in the world. Despite having no oil reserves, Lebanon, as the Middle East's banking center and among its trading center, had a high national income.[238] Lebanese real GDP 1970-2017 The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,[208] cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[15] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[239] Port of Beirut Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[240] and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.[241] The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,[242] Market capitalization was also at an all-time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.[242] The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[243] Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$1.5 billion pledged),[244] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[245] and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[246] Tourism Beirut is the tourism hub of the country Main article: Tourism in Lebanon The tourism industry accounts for about 10% of GDP.[247] Lebanon attracted around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as 79th out of 191 countries.[248] In 2009, The New York Times ranked Beirut the No. 1 travel destination worldwide due to its nightlife and hospitality.[249] In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.[250] In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War.[251] Tourist arrivals reached two million in 2010, but fell by 37% for the first 10 months of 2012, a decline caused by the war in neighbouring Syria.[247] Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan are the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.[252] The recent influx of Japanese tourists has caused the recent rise in popularity of Japanese cuisine in Lebanon.[253] Infrastructure Education Main article: Education in Lebanon According to surveys from the World Economic Forum's 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fourth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education. In quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.[254] AUB College Hall in Beirut. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.[255] All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Some of the 1400 private schools offer IB programs,[256] and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The first eight years of education are, by law, compulsory.[20] Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[257][258] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Saint Joseph University of Beirut (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.[259][260] Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.[261] Haigazian University in Beirut. The top-ranking universities in the country are the American University of Beirut (#242 worldwide, #2 in the Middle East as of 2022),[262] University of Balamand (#511 worldwide, #17 in the region), [263] Lebanese American University (#581 worldwide, #17 in the region),[264] Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth (#531 worldwide, #17 in the region),[265] Université Libanaise (#3,826 worldwide) and Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (#600s worldwide as of 2020).[266] Notre Dame University-Louaize NDU #701 as of 2021.[267] Health Main article: Health in Lebanon In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[268] The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.[269] By the end of the civil war, only one-third of the country's public hospitals were operational, each with an average of 20 beds. By 2009 the country had 28 public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds, while the country had approximately 25 public hospitals.[270] At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the Ministry of Public Health reimbursing the remainder.[270] The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.[271] In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals. More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.[271] According to the Ministry of Public Health in Lebanon, the top 10 leading causes of reported hospital deaths in 2017 were: malignant neoplasm of bronchus or lung (4.6%), Acute myocardial infarction (3%), pneumonia (2.2%), exposure to unspecified factor, unspecified place (2.1%), acute kidney injury (1.4%), intra-cerebral hemorrhage (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of colon (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of pancreas (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of prostate (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of bladder (0.8%).[272] Recently, there has been an increase in foodborne illnesses in Lebanon. This has raised public awareness on the importance of food safety, including in the realms of food storage, preservation, and preparation. More restaurants are seeking information and compliance with International Organization for Standardization.[273] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Lebanon See also: Lebanese people The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 6,859,408 in 2018, with the number of Lebanese nationals estimated to be 4,680,212 (July 2018 est.);[9][10] however, no official census has been conducted since 1932 due to the sensitive confessional political balance between Lebanon's various religious groups.[274] Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity since in reality, the Lebanese "are descended from many different peoples who are either indigenous, or have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world", making Lebanon, "a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures".[275] While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, "for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict".[275] The fertility rate fell from 5.00 in 1971 to 1.75 in 2004. Fertility rates vary considerably among the different religious groups: in 2004, it was 2.10 for Shiites, 1.76 for Sunnis and 1.61 for Maronites.[276] Beirut located on the Mediterranean Sea is the most populous city in Lebanon. Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,800,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.[276] Millions of people of Lebanese descent are spread throughout the world, mostly Christians,[277] especially in Latin America.[278] Brazil and Argentina have large expatriate population.[279] (See Lebanese people). Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to West Africa,[280] particularly to the Ivory Coast (home to over 100,000 Lebanese)[281] and Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese).[282] Australia is home to over 270,000 Lebanese (1999 est.).[283] In Canada, there is also a large Lebanese diaspora of approximately 250,000–700,000 people having Lebanese descent. (see Lebanese Canadians). United States also has one the largest Lebanese population, at around 2,000,000.[284] Another region with a significant diaspora are Gulf Countries, where the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar (around 25,000 people),[285] Saudi Arabia and UAE act as host countries to many Lebanese. 269,000 Lebanese citizens currently reside in Saudi Arabia.[286] Around a third of the Lebanese workforce, about 350,000, live in Gulf countries according to some sources.[287] As of 2012, Lebanon was host to over 1,600,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 449,957 from Palestine,[15] 100,000 from Iraq,[288][289] over 1,100,000 from Syria,[15][290] and at least 4,000 from Sudan.[291] According to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations, among the Syrian refugees, 71% live in poverty.[237] A 2013 estimate by the United Nations put the number of Syrian refugees at over 1,250,000.[121] In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive armed conflicts have ravaged the country. The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships. In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected in some way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict.[292]    Largest cities or towns in Lebanon Source? Rank Name Governorate Pop. Rank Name Governorate Pop. Beirut Beirut Tripoli Tripoli 1 Beirut Beirut 1,916,100 11 Nabatieh Nabatieh 50,000 Jounieh Jounieh Zahlé Zahlé 2 Tripoli North 1,150,000 12 Zgharta North 45,000 3 Jounieh Mount Lebanon 450,000 13 Bint Jbeil Nabatieh 30,000 4 Zahlé Beqaa 130,000 14 Bsharri North 25,000 5 Sidon South 110,000 15 Baakleen Mount Lebanon 20,000 6 Aley Mount Lebanon 100,000 7 Tyre South 85,000 8 Byblos Mount Lebanon 80,000 9 Baalbek Baalbek-Hermel 70,000 10 Batroun North Governorate 55,000 Religion Main article: Religion in Lebanon See also: Christianity, Islam, Irreligion, and Secularism in Lebanon Saint George Maronite Cathedral and the Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque, Beirut. Distribution of main religious groups of Lebanon according to last municipal election data.[293] Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East.[294] Because the relative sizes of different religions and religious sects remains a sensitive issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932.[295] There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – four Muslim, 12 Christian, one Druze, and one Jewish.[295] The Lebanese government counts its Druze citizens as part of its Muslim population,[296] although most Druze today do not identify as Muslims,[297][298][299][300][301] and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.[302] It is believed that there has been a decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims over the past 60 years, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.[295] When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.[276] In 1956, it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.[276] A demographic study conducted by the research firm Statistics Lebanon found that approximately 27% of the population was Sunni, 27% Shia, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, 5% Melkite, and 1% Protestant, with the remaining 6% mostly belonging to smaller non-native to Lebanon Christian denominations.[295] The CIA World Factbook estimates (2020) the following (data does not include Lebanon's sizable Syrian and Palestinian refugee populations): Muslim 67.8% (31.9% Sunni, 31.2% Shia, smaller percentages of Alawites and Ismailis), Christian 32.4% (Maronite Catholics are the largest Christian group), Druze 4.5%, and very small numbers of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, and Hindus.[303] Other sources like Euronews[304] or the Madrid-based diary La Razón[305] estimate the percentage of Christians to be around 53%. A study conducted by the Lebanese Information Center and based on voter registration numbers shows that by 2011 the Christian population was stable compared to that of previous years, making up 34.35% of the population; Muslims, the Druze included, were 65.47% of the population.[306] The World Values Survey of 2014 put the percentage of atheists in Lebanon at 3.3%.[307] The Sunni residents primarily live in Tripoli, Western Beirut, the Southern coast of Lebanon, and Northern Lebanon.[308] The Shi'a residents primarily live in Southern Beirut, the Beqaa Valley, and Southern Lebanon.[308] The Maronite Catholic residents primarily live in Eastern Beirut and the mountains of Lebanon.[308] They are the largest Christian community in Lebanon.[308] The Greek Orthodox, the second largest Christian community in Lebanon, primarily live in Koura, Beirut, Rachaya, Matn, Aley, Akkar, in the countryside around Tripoli, Hasbaya and Marjeyoun. They are a minority of 10% in Zahle.[citation needed] The Greek Catholics live mainly in Beirut, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon mountains and in Zahle which is predominantly Greek Catholic.[309] In the Christian village of Hadat, there has been a municipal ban on Muslims from buying or renting property. It has been claimed that it is due to an underlying fear of mixing with one another's salvation since for three decades, the village of Hadat has been predominantly Christian.[310][311] Language Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used".[312] The majority of Lebanese people speak Lebanese Arabic, which is grouped in a larger category called Levantine Arabic, while Modern Standard Arabic is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media. Lebanese Sign Language is the language of the Deaf community. There is also significant presence of French, and of English. Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% "partial francophone", and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.[313] By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.[313] The use of French is a legacy of France's historic ties to the region, including its League of Nations mandate over Lebanon following World War I; as of 2005, some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.[314] The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they usually prefer to speak in French and, to a lesser extent, English, which are seen as more fashionable.[315][316] English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.[317][318] Lebanese citizens of Armenian, Greek, or Assyrian descent often speak their ancestral languages with varying degrees of fluency. As of 2009, there were around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population.[319] Culture Main article: Culture of Lebanon Temple of Bacchus is considered among the best preserved Roman temples in the world, c. 150 AD The culture of Lebanon reflects the legacy of various civilizations spanning thousands of years. Originally home to the Canaanite-Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Fatimids, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine. Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they "share an almost common culture".[320] Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted "in wider Mediterranean and Arab Levantine norms".[320] Arts In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was among Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.[321] Many more contemporary artists are active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist residing in New York.[322] In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of over 400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection. Sursock Museum in Beirut Literature In literature, Khalil Gibran is the third best-selling poet of all time, behind Shakespeare and Laozi.[323] He is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into over twenty different languages and is the second best selling book in the 20th century behind the Bible.[324] Ameen Rihani was a major figure in the mahjar literary movement developed by Arab emigrants in North America, and an early theorist of Arab nationalism. Mikha'il Na'ima is widely recognized as among the most important figures in modern Arabic letters and among the most important spiritual writers of the 20th century. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schehadé. Music Main article: Music of Lebanon Fairuz While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity.[325] Lebanese artists like Fairuz, Majida El Roumi, Wadih El Safi, Sabah, Julia Boutros or Najwa Karam are widely known and appreciated in Lebanon and in the Arab world. Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian[326] and modern French, English, American, and Latin tunes.[327] Media and cinema Sabah and Salah Zulfikar in Paris and Love (1972) The cinema of Lebanon, according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, besides the dominant Egyptian cinema,[328][329] that could amount to a national cinema.[330] Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films with many films including Egyptian filmmakers and film stars.[331] The media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.[332] According to Press freedom's Reporters Without Borders, "the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country".[333] Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is "at the core of a regional media network with global implications".[334] Holidays and festivals Main article: Public holidays in Lebanon Lebanon celebrates national and both Christian and Muslim holidays. Christian holidays are celebrated following both the Gregorian Calendar and Julian Calendar. Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestants, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December. Armenian Apostolic Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar. Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son to God, the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning). Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day. Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.[335] Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Byblos International Festival, Beiteddine International Festival, Jounieh International Festival Archived 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Broumana Festival, Batroun International Festival, Ehmej Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival.[335][336] These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's Ministry of Tourism. Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.[337] Cuisine Main article: Lebanese cuisine Lebanese cuisine is similar to those of many countries in the Eastern Mediterranean, such as Syria, Turkey, Greece, and Cyprus. The Lebanese national dishes are the kibbe, a meat pie made from finely minced lamb and burghul (cracked wheat), and the tabbouleh, a salad made from parsley, tomatoes, and burghul wheat. Lebanese restaurant meals begin with a wide array of mezze - small savoury dishes, such as dips, salads, and pastries. The mezze are typically followed by a selection of grilled meat or fish. In general, meals are finished with Arabic coffee and fresh fruit, though sometimes a selection of traditional sweets will be offered as well. Sports Main article: Sport in Lebanon Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium in Beirut Lebanon has six ski resorts. Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.[338] At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon's most popular sports. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.[339] Rugby league is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon. The Lebanon national rugby league team participated in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup,[340] and narrowly missed qualification for the 2008[341] and 2013 tournaments.[342] Lebanon also took part in the 2009 European Cup where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated Ireland to finish 3rd in the tournament.[343] Hazem El Masri, who was born in Tripoli, is considered to be the greatest Lebanese to ever play the game. He immigrated to Sydney, Australia from Lebanon in 1988. He became the greatest point-scorer in National Rugby League history in 2009 by scoring himself 2418 points while playing for Australian club, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs where he also holds the record for most first grade appearances for the club with 317 games and most tries for the club with 159 tries. At international level, He also hold the records as top-try scorer with 12 tries and top-point scorer with 136 points for the Lebanese national team.[344] Al Ansar FC in Beirut Lebanon participates in basketball. The Lebanese National Team qualified for the FIBA World Championship 3 times in a row.[345][346] Dominant basketball teams in Lebanon are Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut,[347] who are the Arab and Asian champions, Club Sagesse who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before. Fadi El Khatib is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League. Football is also among the more popular sports in the country. The top football league is the Lebanese Premier League, whose most successful clubs are Al Ansar FC and Nejmeh SC. Lebanon's most notable players include Roda Antar, Youssef Mohamad, and Hassan Maatouk. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the AFC Asian Cup[348] and the Pan Arab Games.[349][350] Lebanon hosted the 2009 Jeux de la Francophonie,[351] and have participated in every Olympic Games since its independence, winning a total of four medals.[352] Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include Samir Bannout, Mohammad Bannout and Ahmad Haidar. Water sports have also shown to be very active in the past years, in Lebanon. Since 2012 and with the emergence of the Lebanon Water Festival NGO, more emphasis has been placed on those sports, and Lebanon has been pushed forward as a water sport destination internationally.[353] They host different contests and water show sports that encourage their fans to participate and win big.[354] Science and technology Saint Joseph University of Beirut's Campus of Innovation and Sports on Damascus Street, Beirut Lebanon was ranked 92nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 88th in 2019.[355][356][357][358][359] Notable scientists from Lebanon include Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Rammal Rammal, and Edgar Choueiri.[360][361][362] In 1960, a science club from a university in Beirut started a Lebanese space program called "the Lebanese Rocket Society". They achieved great success until 1966 where the program was stopped because of both war and external pressure.[363][364]
  • Size: 8 x 10 in
  • Type: Photograph
  • Subject: Men
  • Original/Licensed Reprint: Original
  • Year of Production: 1969

PicClick Insights - Beirut Richest Man Vintage Photo 8X10 Inches Original 1969 Henri Faroun PicClick Exclusive

  •  Popularity - 0 watchers, 0.0 new watchers per day, 16 days for sale on eBay. 0 sold, 1 available.
  •  Best Price -
  •  Seller - 808+ items sold. 0% negative feedback. Great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings.

People Also Loved PicClick Exclusive